School-Site Mentoring Programs for At-Risk Middle School Students
Rachel Herzog
A Capstone Project submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Master of Science Degree in
Counselor Education at Winona State University
Spring, 2012
Winona State University College of Education Counselor Education Department
CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL ______________________________
CAPSTONE PROJECT _____________________
School-Site Mentoring Programs for At-Risk Middle School Students
This is to certify that the Capstone Project of Rachel Herzog
Has been approved by the faculty advisor and the CE 695-Capstone Project Course Instructor in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
Master of Science Degree in Counselor Education.
Capstone Project Supervisor:
Name
Approval Date: _April 24, 2012_____________
Abstract
A major challenge that children face is the transition from elementary school to middle school.
Students who are at-risk of dropping out of school have more difficulties with this transition.
Support and guidance from positive role models are a critical part of the process that allows these youth to grow up into responsible adults. Yet, today there is a scarcity of such support especially among at risk youth. Institutions such as family and neighborhoods that historically were relied on to provide youth with adult support and guidance have changed in ways that have drastically reduced their capacity to deliver such support. One intervention that school counselors can implement to help with the transition to middle school as well as reduce the occurrence of at-risk behaviors is school-site mentoring. The purpose of this paper is to educate school counselors and other educators on the importance of implementing school-site mentoring programs for at- risk middle school students as well as teach them how to design and set-up a solid mentoring program in their schools.
Contents
Introduction ………...….1
Review of Literature ………...4
Developmental Needs ……….4
Academic Changes ……….……….4
Physical Changes ………4
Cognitive Changes ………..5
Social Changes ………6
Emotional Changes ……….7
Concerns and Challenges of Middle School ………...7
Anti-Social Behavior ………10
School-Site Mentoring Programs ……….…….10
Elements of Successful Mentoring Programs ………..….11
Benefits of School Site Mentoring Programs ………..….12
Limitations and Risks of School Site Mentoring Programs ………..14
Implications for School Counselors ………..…………15
Discussion ..………..………...………..18
References ……….21
Appendix A………....26
Introduction
In the life of a child there are a myriad of transitions that happen during childhood. One of these major transitions that children encounter is the transition from elementary to middle school. When students transition from elementary school to middle school, their world explodes, and there are several new social and academic pressures that they have to adjust to. Such
pressures include getting to class on time, increased difficulty of classes and homework, and peer pressure. Schools often try to develop programs that will help students successfully make the transition. One intervention that could help aid in a successful transition of students to middle school is a school-site mentoring program. A school-site mentoring program would help with aspects such as academics, behavior, social skills, and development of positive relationships.
The past decade has seen widespread enthusiasm for school-site mentoring as a way to address the needs and problems of youth (Herrera, Kauh, Cooney, Grossman & McMaken, 2008). Although high-school-aged mentors were a rarity a decade ago, the rapid expansion of mentoring programs in the United States has increased the demand for mentors and,
consequently, the reliance on younger cohorts of volunteers (Herrera, et al., 2008). For Big Brothers Big Sisters of America, the nation’s largest mentoring organization, teenagers now represent a quarter of their volunteer mentors and are increasing annually (2000).
For the purposes of this paper, at-risk students will be defined as dropping out of school prior to completion of the official number of credits (National At-Risk Education Network (NAREN), 2000). At-risk students have risk factors of poor attendance, emotional and behavioral issues, failing grades, and low self-esteem.
Mentoring programs can help at-risk students improve their grades and attendance (Blum
& Jones, 1993). Mentoring is a time-proven strategy that can help young people of all
circumstances achieve their potential. In a time when large numbers of Americans have little confidence in social interventions, mentoring can produce hard outcomes for adolescents
regarding drug use, violent behavior, school performance, and family relationships. Mentors are caring individuals who, along with parents or guardians, provide young people with support, counsel, friendship, reinforcement, and a positive model example.
Mentoring offers a number of positive outcomes. According to DuBois (2007), school site mentoring programs show that students’ attitudes toward school and math and reading levels improve after the child has been placed in a mentoring relationship. Also number of days absent and tardy as well as behavioral referrals decrease as well. Mentoring programs also have been shown to help reduce illegal drug and alcohol use, belonging to gangs, getting into fights, and other risk taking behaviors (DuBois & Silverton, 2005). Altogether having a mentor is associated with success in school and completing high school. Mentoring helps students to reduce truancy and tardiness, school dropout, improve student academic achievement, and improve classroom behavior (Tierney, Grossman & Resch, 2000).
With the extreme pressure of the No Child Left Behind Act, teachers, counselors, and other school personnel are having to look for various interventions to help meet the needs of those at-risk students. Counselors are required to ensure the success of all the students in the school no matter what their race, color, nationality, or disability. The role of the school counselor in a middle school or high school is to promote the academic, personal/social, and career development as well as assist students in life transitions (American School Counselor Association, 2005). There are many ways that school counselors can make sure that no child is left behind. Mentoring and its positive impact can be one of those interventions.
Middle school success is one step to ensure at-risk students graduate high school. A school-site mentoring program with a focus on academics, social/personal, and career is one intervention which could aid at-risk students with the transition to middle school. The purpose of this project will be to educate school counselors on the importance of school-site mentoring programs for at-risk middle school students as well as provide them with the direction and specific information on how to successfully build and implement a school-site mentoring program.
Review of the Literature Developmental Needs
Transitioning from elementary to middle school means children move from having one teacher in a self-contained classroom, knowing all the students in their class, to having multiple teachers with different students in each class. Middle school students have to deal with new experiences such as getting to and from class and additional work loads. Some students navigate this transition successfully; however, others have a difficult time. For students going through this transition, there are different areas of concern, which include academics and social/personal development. According to Bishop and Pflaum (2005), middle school students need to have a sense of community, affiliation, and belonging in order to have academic engagements.
Mentoring offers one way to provide a sense of community, affiliation, and belonging to increase a student’s opportunities for successfully making it through their academic career.
Academic Changes. Academically the expectations for students in middle school change comparatively to the expectations in elementary school. A major difference in middle school is that, in most cases, the student’s teacher will be certified in a particular area while in elementary school they are more generalists (Bishop & Pflaum, 2005). This means that middle school students will have to learn from several teachers, all with different teaching styles and personalities. Middle school students also have a lot more responsibility placed on them for their own learning (Bishop & Pflaum, 2005). These students are required to keep track of the
different assignments, due dates, and projects with limited hand-holding from their teachers.
Physical Changes. Middle school is also a time of many physical, mental, emotional, and social changes (U.S. Department of Health, 2010). Hormones change as puberty begins.
Girls start puberty anywhere from 8 to 13 years old, with boys at 10 to 15 years old (U.S.
department of Education, 2005). As boys’ and girls’ bodies begin to change, they might be worried about these changes and how they are seen by others. Girls, who enter puberty earlier than their male peers, often face greater difficulties (U.S. Department of Education, 2005). Girls, who are early developers, can end up being pressured into adult situations before they are
emotionally and mentally ready to face these challenges and consequences. Boys who develop late may feel inadequate because they are not as able to compete physically, especially in sports (U.S. Department of Education, 2005). This is also a time when adolescents might face peer pressure to use alcohol, tobacco, drugs, and engage in sexual activity. Other challenges they may face are eating disorders, depression, and family problems.
Cognitive Changes. Changes that middle school children go through cognitively are expressing feelings better, a stronger sense of right and wrong, and increased ability for complex thought (Paplia, Olds & Feldman, 2009). As adolescents move into Piaget’s formal operations stage, they begin to think more abstractly and hypothetically – they acquire the ability to think systematically about all social relationships within a problem and often engage in idealization by then comparing themselves and others to these ideal standards (Vernon & Clemente, 2005).
They also begin to make predictions about hypothetical events and develop the ability to think about things they have never experienced before. Adolescents progress at varying rates in developing their abilities to think in more complex ways (Paplia, Olds & Feldman, 2009). At this developmental period, adolescents develop their own view of the world. Some may be able to apply formal operations to school work long before they are able to apply them to personal dilemmas. When emotional issues arise, they often interfere with an adolescent’s ability to think in more complex ways. The ability to consider possibilities, as well as facts, may influence decision making in either positive or negative ways (Paplia, Olds & Feldman, 2009).
Social Changes. A central concern during adolescence is the search for identity, which has occupational, sexual, and value components. Erickson described this conflict of adolescence as identity versus role confusion (Barber & Erickson, 2001). The virtue that should arise from this conflict is fidelity. Researchers differ on whether girls or boys take different paths to identity formation. Some research suggests that girls’ self-esteem tends to fall in adolescence (Paplia, Olds & Feldman, 2009). Ethnicity also becomes an important part of identity. During this period of development, adolescents are seen as very egocentric as they experience the “time warp” concept where they have an inability to link events, situations, and feelings together to form a complete sense of their own history (Vernon & Clemente, 2005). Young teens would much rather be with their friends than their family, especially their parents. At this point they realize that parents are not perfect and often will point out their faults. They begin to search for new adults to confide in instead of their parents. They are quick to disagree with them and will take the opposite view on issues to test parental values (Barber & Erikson, 2001). At this age, middle school students make more of their own choices about friends, sports, studying, and school. They become more independent with their own personality and interests (U.S.
Department of Health, 2010). Middle school students also feel invincible as if nothing bad could possibly happen to them and they become more interested in the present and start engaging in risky behaviors (Cripps & Zyromski, 2009). Close relationships with peer groups become important at this age. It is important for young adolescents to fit in and not appear different from their peers. Peer group friendships become more intimate with increased sharing of ideas, opinions, and activities (Barber & Erikson, 2001). For children transitioning into middle school, those who are lacking in friendships and or have an unstable friendship with a best friend have an increased risk of social withdrawal. When students are excluded, victimized, and without
friends, increases in social withdrawal may occur (Diemert, 1992). Conformity in behavior and physical appearance becomes very important. Finally, middle school aged children are quick to demonstrate acting out. They become frustrated and anxious because of their lack of experience and inability to cope with certain events and problems.
Emotional Changes. Emotions have often been used to define the period of
adolescence. In fact, heightened emotions and rapid mood fluctuations characterize this period, with the adolescent shifting from intense sadness to anger to excitement in a brief time (Vernon
& Clemente, 2005). This emotional disequilibrium is also accompanied by egocentrism, pubertal changes, and an increased need for independence (Vernon & Clemente, 2005). When emotional stress does arise, it often is the result of the struggle to gain autonomy and conflict with parents. At this developmental period early adolescents become more sensitive to the ups and downs associated with social interactions often overreacting to who said what about whom (Vernon & Clemente, 2005). Because of the wide range of emotional experiences, a major task for middle school students is developing a tolerance for their emotions rather than feeling ashamed of their feelings. A study by Fenzel (2000) indicated young adolescents transitioning into middle school, who believe themselves capable of making friends easily, will be less likely to have a low self-worth and poor social skills. According to Cauley and Jovanovic (2006), students with behavior problems often have a difficult time transitioning into middle school due to a lack of social skills. Additionally, children with anti-social behaviors are at greater risk of dropping out of school in the future (Cauley & Jovanovic, 2006).
Concerns and Challenges of Middle School
There are numerous concerns and challenges for middle school students that are
associated with the transition from elementary to middle school. The concerns that students have
about entering middle school can be grouped into three categories: academic, procedural, and social (Cauley & Jovanovich, 2006). Academic concerns for students include schoolwork and teacher expectations, such as having tough teachers that expect too much, harder class work, too much homework, having more responsibility for their work, and knowing how to get extra help from teachers if they do not understand.
Procedural concerns encompass day to day worries about getting around the school, including knowing where classes are, getting to class on time, and finding the lunch room (Cauley & Jovanovich, 2006). Middle school students may worry about finding their lockers, forgetting their locker combination, and being prepared for classes. Others may worry about getting on the right bus at the end of the school day. Finally, students may worry about rules in the new school and the consequences behind breaking those rules, as well as what is expected of their behavior in class (Cauley & Jovanovich, 2006).
Social concerns that have been identified in adolescents as they transition to middle school are dealing with peer and teacher relationships, especially making new friends and getting along with teachers (Cauley & Jovanovich, 2006). In regards to friends, students worry about not seeing friends from elementary school, knowing how to make new ones, and not being accepted into peer groups. Other concerns center around safety issues such as items being stolen, peer pressure, getting into fights, and knowing what to do if a fight ensues (Cauley &
Jovanovich, 2006).
In a study by Akos and Galassi (2004), students and parents identified how they felt about middle school. Before the school year began, students and parents initially identified the amount of academic work, getting lost, being on time to class, and fitting in and/or making friends as areas of concerns. Later on in the school year, students found classes, getting good
grades, completing homework, and teachers to be the hardest aspects of middle school, while parents thought changes in the amount of responsibility and relationships with friends were the most difficult parts. These students identified that spending time with friends, trying to fit in and ignoring those who pick on them helped eased the transition into middle school (Akos & Galassi, 2004). A mentoring program could certainly assist with these areas.
Some young adolescents demonstrate motivational problems during the transition to middle school which may be the result of a new school environment. These students usually move from a smaller school to a larger one and are faced with classes of students they do not know. Cauley and Jovanovich (2006) argued that the lack of fit between the needs of
adolescents and the nature of the middle school environment could account for the declines in motivation. For example, at a time when middle school students are extremely self-conscious and trying to find themselves, schools emphasize competition and social comparison, especially in regard to grades and academic goals. Furthermore, schools reduce opportunities for student decision making as students are striving more than ever for autonomy and independence (Cauley
& Jovanovich, 2006). Finally, school structure disrupts peer relationships at a time when adolescents are especially concerned about friendships and relationships.
For children transitioning into middle school, those who are lacking in friendships and/or have an unstable friendship with a best friend have an increased risk of social withdrawal.
Additionally, young adolescents having low self-worth and no close friends will have more difficulties with peer relationships as they go through the transition to middle school. According to Cauley and Jovanovich (2006), students with behavior problems often have a difficult time transitioning into middle school due to lack of social skills. Additionally, children with
problematic behaviors, known as anti-social behaviors, are at greater risk of dropping out of school in the future (Patterson, Reid, & Dishion, 1992).
Anti-social Behaviors
The onset of antisocial behavior is found in children as early as preschool age (Patterson, Reid, & Dishion, 1992). Research has linked this early onset of anti-social behavior with
poverty, single-parent homes, violence, and drug and alcohol abuse (Kazdin, 1987). Patterson and colleagues (1992) discuss a causal model that begins with these factors and ends with well- rooted antisocial behavioral patterns in school aged children. These factors can interfere with the development of healthy parenting and in turn, unhealthy parenting routines and negative social patterns associated with them lead to antisocial behaviors in children. Children then take these behaviors into the schools with them.
In schools, antisocial behavior can be seen through behavior problems, social withdrawal, peer rejection, academic struggle, and absenteeism. All of these are predictors of school failure, delinquency, and dropout (Finn, 1993). Research has shown that the increasing numbers of middle school students who demonstrate these at-risk behaviors are impacting the mission statements of the school negatively including school safety and education quality (Walker, Colvin, & Ramsey, 1995). This negative impact is driving schools to seek various interventions, like mentoring programs, that reduce the occurrence of at-risk and anti-social behaviors and help these students make the difficult transition from elementary to middle school as well as to reconnect middle school students with the positive mission of the schools.
School-Site Mentoring Programs
As defined by Big Brothers Big Sisters of America (BBBSA), school-site mentoring programs are mentoring programs that take place at the school. The mentor comes to the school
to meet with the child, typically for an hour a week throughout the school year. School
personnel supervise the program and activities may include tutoring, game playing, and sports.
School-site mentoring programs offer students the chance to develop a relationship with a positive role model other than their parents or teachers, who become friends, role models, and advocates for them. This relationship is one-on-one.
Because of the influx of mentoring organizations and research developing on the positive impact they have on school aged children, mentoring is gaining credibility as one of the school- wide intervention programs that may be used with students who are at risk for school dropout and failure (Herrera, Kauh, Cooney, Grossman & McMaken, 2008). In school-site mentoring, a mentor is paired with a mentee with the goal of developing a trusting, consistent, and dependable relationship in the schools, where the student might otherwise have limited opportunities or inconsistent and unreliable adults in his or her life. School-site mentoring allows these students the chance to seek guidance from their mentors, problem solve, and most importantly develop social skills, self-esteem and resiliency (Flaxman & Ascher, 1992).
Elements of successful mentoring programs. A key to a successful mentoring program is to ensure the mentoring relationships are of the greatest quality and have positive results for the youth involved. Furthermore, it is necessary to ensure that all parties involved remain safe and child safety is always on participants’ minds. With any program it is important to make sure the resources needed are used in a reliable and efficient manner. Finally, the program should be sustainable and able to grow over time (DuBois, 2007).
Also, for a mentoring program to be successful, the relationship between the mentor and mentee should grow. According to Rhodes (2002), an emotional relationship is the most significant part of a mentoring program. Once a strong relationship has been developed, then
social-emotional development, cognitive development, role modeling, and identification may occur. In turn this may lead to positive development in the mentee, in such areas as academics and behavior.
Through other research and readings several variables have been identified as mediators of program effectiveness of mentoring programs. Primary variables include making sure mentors are trained to use effective time management, trust building strategies, and communication strategies. Other variables include supporting mentors through ongoing
monitoring and supervision from trained staff, and using formative evaluations, such as surveys, to facilitate program improvement (Dubois, Holloway, Valentine, & Cooper, 2002).
Benefits of School-Site Mentoring Program. There are many benefits to participating in a school site mentoring program. The U.S Department of Education did a review of different mentoring programs and found the following benefits: academic improvement; feelings of connectedness to parents, school, and the future; social skills development; and increases in self- esteem (Mentoring Resource Center, 2005). The Training Guide for Volunteer Mentors (Pardini, 2006) identifies additional benefits of mentoring. Mentors increase personal satisfaction, gain recognition from others, focus on others, and have increases in interpersonal skills. The mentees gain a positive role model, receive exposure to other people and cultures, receive positive
attention form an appropriate source, gain self-confidence and self-esteem, and develop socially and emotionally. Jekielek, Moore, Hair, and Scarupa (2002) identify that youth who have taken part in a mentoring relationship have better school attendance, an increased chance of going on to a higher education, and a more positive attitude towards school. Mentees have a lower likelihood of using alcohol and other drugs, a reduction in negative behaviors related to delinquency, and more positive attitudes towards relationships.
The BBBS approach does not actually target those aspects of life, nor directly address them. What it does do is provide a caring, adult friend. Thus findings for mentoring speak to the effectiveness of an approach to youth policy that is very different from the problem orientated approach that is prevalent in youth programming (Tierney, Grossman & Resch, 2000).
School-site mentoring programs offer other advantages as well. With school-site
mentoring programs both the mentor and the mentee learn and gain skills (Garringer & MacRae, 2008). The school-site mentoring relationship allows the mentor and mentee to develop more friendships. An advantage of school-site mentoring programs over other mentoring programs is the need for fewer resources due to the program usually being based out of a school. Another benefit is having someone out of school aid students with the transition into a new school, such as middle school. Parents may feel like peer mentoring programs are better, since most activities take place at a school where it is safe and supervised; a strange adult is not part of their child’s life and the activities generally take place either immediately before or after school or during the school day. According to Herrera, Kauh, Cooney, Grossman & McMaken (2008), mentors in a school-site mentoring program reported increases in self-confidence, self-esteem,
communication ability, and problem solving skills. Research by Fenzel (2000) indicates that helping an at-risk student develop social skills will assist the student to successfully make it through transitions.
School-site mentoring programs provide specific benefits to at-risk youth as they make the transition into middle school as well. At-risk youth are statistically less likely to have support systems necessary for resiliency. Bernard (1993, p.44) defines resiliency as “the capacity to adapt and function successfully despite experiencing chronic stress and adversity”.
Resilience in children can be attributed to having social support, the chance to develop positive
familial support, and individual characteristics and skills. Mentoring can build a child’s resiliency by providing social support. According to O’Connor (2006), mentoring provides an opportunity for a child to reach his or her full potential. Students at-risk of dropping out of school can be helped by a mentoring program, which may improve their grades and attendance (Blum & Jones, 1993). A study by Public/Private Ventures in the Big Brothers Big Sisters School Based Mentoring program for High School Students as Mentors indicates mentees denoted improvements in classroom effort, prosocial behavior, skipping school, quality of class work, turning in completed assignments, oral and written language, classroom behavior,
misconduct at school, and grades (Herrera, Kauh, Cooney, Grossman, & McMaken, 2008).
Mentoring helps decrease risky behavior, such as belonging to a gang, getting in a fight and other risk taking behavior (DuBuois & Silverthorn, 2005). Having a mentor is also associated with being more likely to successfully complete high school, having a better self-esteem, having a feeling of satisfaction in life, and participating in great amounts of physical activity, all of which result in increases in the child’s wellbeing, physical health, and emotional health.
Mentoring furthermore allows students to develop more confidence in their school work, improve their relationship with their parents and friends, reduce the number of unexcused absences, develop a better attitude towards school, decrease disruptive class behavior, and become more engaged in class (Cannatra, Garringer, MacRaae, & Wakeland, 2005).
Limitations and Risks of School-Site Mentoring Programs. There are several limitations to the effectiveness of a school-site mentoring program that must be taken into account. One limitation is whether or not the students matched with mentors follow through with the program for the full school year and complete all assessment pieces honestly and
correctly (Tierney, Grossman & Resch, 2000). Successful mentoring relationships are long-term
with regular contact occurring between the mentor and mentee. Whenever a match is
closed/terminated early and there is not a regular contact, the mentor and the mentee are at risk of being harmed. The results of research in this area indicated mentoring matches which lasted less than a year could have a detrimental effect on the mentee causing decreases in feelings of self-worth and feelings of academic incompetence (Tierney, Grossman & Resch, 2000).
However, mentees who were matched for a year or longer generally indicated feelings of social acceptance, positive feelings of self-worth and academic competence (Tierney, Grossman &
Resch, 2000). Another limitation that could affect the impact of the program is if a portion of the students enrolled in the program come from minority families with low-income households, with histories of substance abuse or domestic violence. These families tend to be more transient and difficult for volunteers to continue the mentorship if the family leaves the area (Tierney, Grossman & Resch, 2000).
Currently the available research on mentoring at-risk school aged children is vague and lacks quantitative support (Beier, Rosenfeld, Spitalny, Zansky, & Bontempo, 2000). Many studies recommend that future research in this area should include more objective measures such as records and education accomplishments such as grades and test scores to evaluate the
effectiveness of the School Site Mentor Program.
Implications for School Counselors
School counselor can play a fundamental role in helping students transition successfully to middle school. The important thing for school counselors to remember though is that the social/personal development of the school counseling model that the American School Counseling Association developed seems to stop at elementary students while career and
academic development becomes the focus in middle schools and high schools. A study done by
Gysbers and Henderson (2001) showed that the number of different development curricula deployed to respondents declined from 63 at the elementary school level to 42 in the middle school level. This is unfortunate for middle school students who are still struggling with personal and social issues. These students still need to have time with school counselors to address social and personal development. The problem for school counselors is that currently there are high ratios of students to counselors. This limits the amount of focused attention counselors can devote to at-risk students to aid them in their social and personal development.
With the advent of the No Child Left Behind Act (U.S. Department of Education, 1991), counselors are required to ensure that all the children in their school are successful, no matter what their race, color, or nationality. There are many ways counselors, teachers, and
administrators fulfill the requirement to make sure no child is left behind. Mentoring is and can be one intervention that can assist in meeting this need.
School counselors can play an integral role in the implementation of school-site
mentoring programs to help at-risk students through the difficult transition to middle school. If there is a mentoring organization, like Big Brothers Big Sisters in the community, the school counselor’s role is to coordinate the students’ connection and make referrals to the program.
School counselors should encourage students to participate in the program if they are appropriate to the program as well. If there is no mentoring organization to partner with a school,
counselors can devise an easy stand-alone program in the schools. A manual of How to Build a Successful School-Site Mentoring Program is located in Appendix A.
Many counselors are hesitant to implement a mentor program in their school because they feel they do not have the time or resources to start and maintain a program. There is no question that there is a time commitment in starting a mentor program, but it is possible to set up
a mentor program so that, as the counselor, there is very little time spent administering. School counselors must remember that school-based mentoring programs can be one avenue to address the problem of limited time in providing intensive support to the percentage of students who need consistent adult attention. By choosing mentors that are confident working without
constant supervision, and empowering this group, school counselors can multiply their ability by the number of mentors they have and continue their practice of group counseling and class guidance while ensuring that the students who do need more one-on-one attention get the attention that they need.
Discussion
The transition from elementary to middle school can be both a positive and a negative experience depending upon the student (National Mentoring Partnership, 2005). Adolescents entering middle school face many changes that may include increased difficulty of classes and homework, different class structure, school size, new teachers, lockers, peer pressure, as well as all of the typical physical, social, and emotional changes that all middle school students face.
Students that have higher resiliency and more protective factors will face the transition from elementary to middle school head on and more than likely thrive; however, students who are at- risk of dropping out of school are of concern as they move through this transition. School-site mentoring programs can offer a way for these at-risk students to make that transition
successfully.
Studies on the intervention of school-site mentoring programs show how successful they are and how they could be implemented in others schools across the country that are having problems with at-risk student issues such as attendance, behavior, and classroom success. This paper attempts to show that school-site mentoring can positively change the attitudes of students towards school and more importantly attendance, behavior and grades. Mentoring programs can also ease the transition into middle school, and school counselors can play a key role in the development and implementation of these programs. Even though the goals of the school-site program might not directly address school performance they are still aligned with the school’s priorities and concerns. For example, it is important that mentoring help reduce students’
truancy or tardiness, reduce school dropout, improve student academic achievement, and improve students’ classroom behavior.
Mentoring programs consist of four parts: program design, recruitment and screening, matches, and evaluation. These different parts allow the program to meet the specific needs of the population that school counselors are hoping to target, as well as ensure that all expectations and goals are being met for the program. A successful and well developed program can offer many benefits to the participants and school. Some advantages that both mentors and mentees can gain from a school-site mentoring program are development of social skills, new friendships, improvement in conflict resolution, improvement in problem solving abilities, increases in self- esteem and self-confidence, and increases in academics (Tierney, Grossman & Resch, 2000).
There are important considerations to take into account when school counselors are looking to establish a school site program. Cannata and colleagues (2005) point out the importance of building strong and consistent relationships between the mentor and mentee ensuring that the mentee feels that the mentor is a trusting and important part of the student’s life. Also, it is necessary to ensure that all parties involved in the program are safe. Child safety should be number one priority for all participants and school counselors need to make sure that information and resources are provided to mentors. Finally, the program needs to be established so that it can grow over time.
There are several things that have the possibility of negatively impacting the evaluation of the school-site mentoring program that school counselors will have to take into account. One issue that needs to be looked at is whether or not the students and mentors follow through with the program for the full school year. The fear is that a portion of the students enrolled in a School-Site Based Match might be coming from minority families with low income households, with histories of substance abuse or domestic violence which tend to make them more transient.
Yet these are the students that lack stable support systems and are in most need of a mentor.
Future research for the topic of school-site mentoring can go in various directions. One area for further research involves studying whether a minority youth matched with a Caucasian volunteer does equally as well as a minority youth matched with a volunteer of the same racial/ethnic background. Currently the number of minority youth, especially minority boys, requesting the service of mentoring programs is greater than the number of minority mentors. In this case, parents, youth, school counselors, and other mentoring program personnel have to decide between placing youth in a cross-race match or not matching them at all. It will be important for future research to address how youth in cross-race matches compare to youth in same-race matches, also known as mirror matches, when making the decision to match.
A second area for future research on the topic involves studying how the characteristics of the mentee and mentor affect the outcomes. The questions behind this are: Is a certain type of youth better served by a mentoring intervention? Are volunteers who have experienced specific life circumstances better mentors? How should the characteristics of the volunteer and youth be taken into account when making a match? Overall studies have shown that most youth could benefit from having a mentor and that many adults can successfully serve as one. If the program grows and as the number of mentors and mentees increase, the diversity of life circumstances will also increase. This makes it important that mentoring program staff such as school counselors make matches based on which youth will work best with a certain volunteer.
It is key to remember that ASCA asks all professional school counselors everywhere to proudly share the same simple vision---- to prepare today’s students to become tomorrow’s adults. What better way to do this then by implementing a program that helps students reach their full potential through mentoring.
References
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Appendix A
How to Build a Successful School- Site Mentoring Program
Materials adapted from Mentor/National Mentoring Partnership, 2005
A Step-By-Step Tool Kit for Program Managers
Section I. About the Manual 1
Why create a Manual? 1
What You Will Find in the Manual 1
Glossary of Terms 2
Section II. How to Design and Plan a School Site Mentoring Program 3
Start with the need 3
Design the Parameters for Your Program 3
• Defining Youth Population 3
• Identifying Type of Individuals 3
• Determining the Type of Mentoring 3
• Determining the Type of Program 3
• Defining the Type of Mentoring Relationship 4
• Determining Time and Place 4
• Determining Duration of Match 4
• Determining How to Evaluate the Program’s Success 4
• Establishing Management 4
Checklist of Program Progress: Program Design and Planning 5
Section III. How to Recruit and Screen for a School Site Mentoring Program 6
Developing a mentor position description 6
Recruitment methods 6
• Mentor recruitment 6
• Mentee recruitment 6
Screening potential mentors 7
• Suggested Components 7
o Written applications 7
o Reference checks 7
o Criminal background 7
o Face to face interview 7
Interviewing mentees 7
Orient and Train Mentors, Mentees, and Parents/Caregivers 8 Section IV. How to Match Mentors and Mentees in a School-Site Mentoring Program 9
Match mentors and mentees 9
Arranging introductions between mentors and mentees 9 Provide ongoing support, supervision, resources, and materials 10
Section V. How to Establish Evaluation Criteria and Methods 11
Measuring expected outcomes 11
Gauging the effectiveness of the mentoring programs 11
Types of program evaluations 11
Section I.
About the Manual
In recent years, a growing number of people have recognized the tremendous power of mentoring, formal mentoring programs have been accumulating throughout the public and private sectors. More and more community organizations, businesses and governments are launching formal mentoring initiatives.
Building a successful mentoring program is a challenge. There are a myriad of
components to establish and oversee. The simple fact is, youth mentoring programs are far more successful when they follow proven, effective mentoring practices and strategies. This manual can be one source of mentoring best practices and tools that School Counselors can implement from the start. The materials it contains build on the guidelines for running safe and effective mentoring programs.
What you will find in the manual
When designing a mentoring program there are specific steps for starting and running a mentoring program. Mentor/National Mentoring Partnership (2005), a national organization that offers research and advocacy for mentoring, has identified four main parts to a mentoring
program: design and planning, maintenance, operations, and evaluation. Garringer and MacRae (2008) address creating a school-based mentoring program, and through this have indicated the areas of importance as program design, recruitment, screening, and selection, training, and match activities. For the ease and purpose of School Counselors forming a mentoring program in the schools the four areas which will be addressed are:
• Program design and planning
• Recruitment and screening
• Matches
• Program evaluations
The manual dedicates a section to each of these components. In each section School Counselors can find step-by-step information on how to implement a specific component using proven practices that help ensure a strong overall and beneficial program in the schools.
Glossary of terms
Mentoring: Mentoring is a structured and trusting relationship that brings young people together with caring individual who offer guidance, support and encouragement aimed at developing the competence and character of a mentee (SOURCE).
Types of Mentoring:
• Traditional Mentoring: One adult to one young person
• Group Mentoring: One adult to four young people
• Peer Mentoring: Caring youth mentoring other youth Types of Mentoring Programs
• School-Based Programs: Mentors and mentees can meet at the mentee’s school typically at the same day and time each week. Activities take place at the school. It is not a classroom program, and it is not tutoring. It is one to one mentoring that takes place in the school. Activities done together can be arts/crafts, recess, working on homework.
• Community-Based Programs: Where a volunteer can meet with a mentee in the community at a time convenient for both the mentor and mentee. Activities done together are anything out in the community such as going to a park, library, or sporting event Locations of mentoring: Mentoring takes place in a wide amount of settings such as:
• Workplace
• School
• Faith-based organizations
• Juvenile corrections
• Community settings
Duration of Mentoring: Because relationships and a sense of bonding occur over time
between mentors and mentees, the duration and consistency of each mentoring relationship is very important. At a minimum, mentors and mentees should meet regularly for a school based
mentoring program once every week for 30-45 minutes for the duration of the school year.
ABOUT THE MANUAL 1 SECTION I
Section II.
How to Design and Plan a School Site Mentoring Program
Program design and planning stage enables School Counselors to create a road map of how they will manage, implement and evaluate a mentoring program. It must be kept in mind that School Counselors can modify the plan as they go as circumstances and experiences change. For example many of the decisions one makes during this phase will be affected if a school decided to partner with a mentoring agency or group in their area.
Needs the program will meet
The first thing to do as a School Counselor is determine what needs the potential program will meet. The need for the program should guide and provide information about the program components, whether it is academic assistance, social skills improvement, and/or career
explorations.
Designing parameters
The program design phase will help you determine the following:
• Which youth populations your program will serve
• What specific type of mentoring you will offer
• Where mentoring pairs will meet
• Whom you will partner with (school, community)
1. Define the youth population that the program will serve. The age, gender, needs, and common characteristics of the targeted population have to be considered.
• Age: Do you want to serve elementary, middle, or high school youth?
• Gender: Do you intend to serve males, females, or both?
• Mentoring Need: Do you want to help youth improve academics? Or are you looking to help youth improve social skills and friendship making skills?
• Common Characteristics: Are you working with a specific audience? For
example youth at are at-risk of dropping out of school, come from a low income family, are disabled, are members of a language minority or have other risk factors.
2. Identify the types of students you will recruit as mentors. After determining what type of population the program will serve, the mentors can be recruited. It is very important to have mentors who have skills, abilities, and experiences that reflect the needs of the program as well as being positive role models in the school and community. For example if you are looking to help young people improve their reading or academic skills, high school student might be particularly appealing.
ABOUT THE MANUAL 2
3. Determining the type of mentoring. After you define the youth population and the kinds of volunteers you want to recruit the next step is determining which type of mentoring will be provided. The different mentoring relationships are: traditional adult to child mentoring, group mentoring, and peer mentoring (defined in glossary).
4. Determining the type of program. The next step is determining whether the mentoring program will be a stand-alone program or part of an established organization. An example of an established mentoring organization is Big Brothers Big Sisters of America. This type of program is nationwide and already has pre-established guidelines which have been studied and
researched to be proven effective and beneficial. If there are no other established mentoring organization in the area that can be connected with, a School Counselor can look to a stand- alone program. This is where there are not any ties with a pre-existing mentoring program.
Schools often implement their own mentoring program, which could then be considered stand- alone programs.
5. Defining the type of mentoring relationship. While all mentoring programs aim to promote positive youth outcomes, each program has its own specific goals. There are three common types of mentoring relationships however; no matter the type of mentoring
relationship the main purpose should be to develop a strong and positive relationship between mentor and mentee. The first kind of mentoring relationship focuses on character, social and leadership development. This relationship focuses primarily on building a relationship
between the mentee and mentor and having the mentor serve as a role model. Again the focus of this is on building the relationship. The second type of mentoring relationship is school to career, with focus on the match focusing on career exploration, job skills, and post secondary education opportunities. The third type is academic success, where the relationship is built on focusing on academic success. By knowing the goal of the program, School Counselors can determine those individuals who will be best for implementing the program.
6. Determining time and place. The time and place of the matches to meet, training
sessions, and orientation is also a very important thing for School Counselors to consider when forming a mentoring program. The nature of the mentoring program will assist in figuring out the best time to have the mentoring session occur. For example for school counselors school- based mentoring is a very plausible option of mentoring.
• School based mentoring. Takes place at the school. The mentor comes to the school to meet with the child, typically for an hour a week. School personnel supervise the program. Common characteristics of school-based mentoring programs are:
o Offer student the chance to develop a relationship with one or more adults/older students, who become friends, role models, and advocates
o Typically takes place at school, either during or immediately after school hours o Make take various forms including tutoring, game playing, and sports
o Typically ask the mentor for a commitment of at least one school year o Require mentor screening and ongoing support and supervision.
7. Determining duration of match. It must be decided how often the matches should meet and how long the matches should last. For strong mentoring relationships to be established, regular and consistent meetings need to take place. The duration of the match also plays a role
HOW TO DESIGN AND PLAN A SCHOOL -SITE MENTORING PROGRAMSECTION II 3
in the benefits for the child. Studies have shown that matches ending any less than one year become more detrimental to the child than matches that have had had to end that have been in a relationship for more than one year. As seen above for School based mentoring the typical match makes a commitment for at least one school year and typically meets for an hour once a week.
8. Determine how to evaluate the program’s success. Use tools that can help School Counselors evaluate whether they have succeeded in accomplishing what they set out to do for their mentoring program.
9. Establishing management and regular contact with mentors and mentees. For mentoring relationship in the program to last, staff/school counselor will need to be in touch with mentors and mentees on an ongoing basis. That way, they can asses show ell each relationship is progressing and offer guidance, advice, and support along the way. Regular contact and help avoid conflict, get relationships back on track, answer any questions or
concerns, and help
accomplish program goals.
Section VI.
Supplemental Materials
Diagnostic Tool
Primary questions to determine the type of mentoring program that best meets young people’s needs.
1. What is the youth population that your program will serve?
By Age:
8-10 11-14
15-18 Other____
By other characteristics (geography, special needs, etc)
1. What potential sources of mentors will you recruit from (alumni, local business, faith communities, students, etc)?
Type of M entors:
Senior Citizens Corporate employees College students High School Students General public Other ___________
2. What is the nature of the mentoring sessions? (What is the problem that you are trying to address or the outcome you are trying to achieve?)
Education/Academic Support Friendship/Socialization Job placement/Performance Reduce Recidivism
Healthy Behaviors Career Exploration
Other _______
HOW TO DESIGN AND PLAN A SCHOOL-SITE MENTORING PROGRAM 4 SECTION II
3. Where will the mentoring occur?
Site Based: In the community:
Workplace Out in the community
School
Faith based organization O nline:
Juvenile corrections facility online (virtual community After school program
Agency based O ther:
Other ________
4. When will the mentoring sessions take place (e.g. during school, after school, on weekends)?
5. How often will mentors/mentees meet (once per week for an hour, tow hour meetings twice per month, etc) and how long will the mentoring matches endure (one year, six months, etc)?
Created by National Mentoring Partnership for the Step-By-Step Tool Kit, How to Build a Successful Mentoring
Program Using the Elements of Effective Practice.
Section III.
How to Recruit and Screen for a School Site Mentoring Program
They day to day procedures that are established for the mentoring program will greatly affect your program quality and sustainability. The overarching theme is to strive for consistency, compatibility, support and accountability. It will be important that all participants of the mentoring program know what is expect from the program in regard of training and support. Open
communication, trust and honesty between School Counselors, mentors, and mentees are key.
Develop a mentor position description
Defining the qualifications and attributes that mentors should have to successfully engage a mentee a build an effective relationship is important. School Counselors can create a position description that includes:
1. Position Title
2. List of qualifications and required attributes (caring, good listener, stable, can provide leadership, reliable, committed, nonjudgmental, patient, like children.
Tolerant, has a good sense of humor.)
3. Clear description of the functions the mentor will perform 4. Specific time commitments required and duration of the match 5. Location of the mentor/mentee meetings
Recruitment methods
Mentors and mentees need to be found in order for the program to work and flourish.
The recruitment can take place though a variety of different methods. Meetings or information sessions can provide information about the program and an opportunity to sign up as either a mentor or mentee. The mentors and mentees can be recruited through advertisement on the
HOW TO DESIGN AND PLAN A SCHOOL-SITE MENTORING PROGRAM 5
radio, television, school newspapers, and magazines. Another way to recruit is to put up fliers and posters in locations with the targeted populations. Creating a bulletin board, which can be
displayed at schools, libraries, community centers, colleges, or businesses, will help.
Mentor recruitment
The mentors determine the success for a the mentoring program. To find successful mentors, their qualifications must be determined and then the mentors recruited. A minimum of two years should separate the mentor and mentee in order to allow for appropriate boundaries to be maintained. Mentors should be people who are kind and caring, have a desire to help others, are positive role models, will be able to meet the time commitments, are trustworthy, and have a special hobbies or interests.
Mentee recruitment
If school counselors are building a mentoring program to serve a specific youth
populations, such as school-based mentoring program for students seeking academic or career guidance, it is easy to know where the potential participants are. As mentees are recruitment, it is important to remember that the youth decide voluntarily to participate in the program. If the child does not want to be in the program it will not be beneficial to he/she. Also requesting the help of teachers and other school personnel to pin point appropriate mentees as well as mentors for the program that fit the criteria set is another great way to recruit.
Screening potential Mentors
1. Screen potential mentors and mentees. Careful screening processes improve the quality of the mentors and helps ensure the safety of youth involved in the program. The screening process has three primary purposes
o To screen for people who have positive characteristics School Counselors are looking for in a mentor
o To screen out people who have the potential to harm youth or the program o To ensure that youth participants will benefit from the program.
2. Suggested components of volunteer screening.
o Require written applications. The first step in the process of screening is to require all prospective mentors to complete a written application that
includes name, age, address, phone numbers, birthdates, grade level (if applicable, ethnicity, personal reference contact information, etc. The application should also include a release statement that authorizes a background check.
o Conduct reference checks. Best practice is to receive three personal references from prospective references that will be contacted. Reference should include people that are 18 years or older, have known the applicant for at least a year, and has seen he/she work with children
o Criminal background check. Depending on the type of mentoring
program that is being implemented and the target mentors criminal background checks should be used. For School-Site mentoring that has high schools
HOW TO RECRUIT AND SCREEN FOR A SCHOOL-SITE MENTORING
PROGRAM 6
SECTION III
students mentoring younger students, background checks cannot be completed because they are not 18 years old. References must be relied upon with these applicants.
o Conduct face to face interview. Review and discuss the mentor position description with candidates to ensure that they understand the program
expectations. Ask questions during an in person interview that cover work, education, family relationships, current relationships, friends, leisure time activities, drug & alcohol use, mental health issues, home assessment, experience with children, match relationships, match preferences, and
volunteer preferences. It is important to give the applicant the opportunity to ask questions and provide honest answers.
Interviewing Mentees
After the youth are selected to participate or receive a referral from a parent or caregiver, the next step is to provide an orientation to both the youth and the parent/guardian to determine if the program is appropriate to their needs as well. If it meets their expectations the next step is to complete an interview with both the parent and child. It should be used to assess the youth’s attitude and interest in the program and to help make appropriate matches. The parent interview should consist of questions about how their child likes to spend their time, activity level,
relationships with family members and/or absent parents, various concerns about the child, family situations (counseling, incarcerations, abuse), family environment, school performance and
behavior, particular needs of the child, major changes occurring, concerns/preferences regarding a volunteer, and finally goals for the child. The youth interview should consist of questions involving
activities they are interested in, what they are good at, if they want a mentor, what they would like a mentor to help with, what kind of mentor would they like, what activities they would like to do, how people would describe them, what they think of school, teachers, and other students, along with safety questions involving what would you do if a stranger came up to you? What would you do if someone tried to or did touch you in a way that you don’t like and makes you feel
uncomfortable? Have you ever been hurt by a grown up before.
Mentor training
The investment that School Counselors make in the initial makings of the program by doing ongoing training of mentors contributes to the success of the program in many ways.
Trainings should be geared towards helping mentors achieve:
1. Becoming more skills at developing caring mentoring relationships
2. Learn about the challenge and barriers the mentees face and how to become more sensitive to those challenges.
3. Gain confidence in their ability to make a different in the lives of their mentees.
Studies have shown that mentors are more successful if they receive training before they are matched with young people and receive coaching and support throughout their continued
involvement with the mentee. During the initial trainings it is important to make sure that these 4 major tasks of mentoring are covered.
1. Establishing a positive personal relationship 2. Helping young people develop life skills
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PROGRAM 7
