Big Ideas Unit 3.docx

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Advanced Placement Psychology – Mr. Massmann

Student Version: Guided Study by Unit

Fall 2013

UNIT Prologue: The Story of Psychology

UNIT 1: Thinking Critically with Psychological Science

Big Questions (Unit Focus)

Prologue

1. When and how did psychological science begin?

2. How did psychology continue to develop from the 1920s through today?

3. What is psychology’s historic big issue?

4. What are psychology’s levels of analysis and related perspectives?

5. What are psychology’s main subfields?

6. How can psychological principles help you as a student?

Unit 1

1. Why are the answers that flow from the scientific approach more reliable than those based on intuition and common sense?

2. What are three main components of the scientific attitude?

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4. How do psychologists observe and describe behavior?

5. What are positive and negative correlations, and why do they enable prediction but not cause-effect explanation?

6. What are illusory correlations?

7. How do experiments, powered by random assignment, clarify cause and effect?

8. How can we describe data with measures of central tendency and variation?

9. What principles can guide our making generalizations from samples and deciding whether differences are significant?

10. Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life?

11. Does behavior depend on one’s culture and gender?

12. Why do psychologists study animals, and is it ethical to experiment on animals?

13. Is it ethical to experiment on people?

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Key Terms

structuralism, 3 nature-nurture issue, 7 applied research, 10

functionalism, 3 natural selection, 8 counseling psychology, 10

behaviorism, 5 levels of analysis, 9 clinical psychology, 10

humanistic psychology, 5 biopsychosocial approach, 8 psychiatry, 11

cognitive neuroscience, 5 basic research, 10 SQ3R, 12

psychology, 6

---hindsight bias, 16 correlation, 25 dependent variable, 32

critical thinking, 20 correlation coefficient, 25 mode, 34

theory, 21 scatterplots, 25 mean, 34

hypothesis, 21 illusory correlation, 28 median, 34

operational definition, 21 experiment, 31 range, 35

replication, 21 random assignment, 31 standard deviation, 35

case study, 22 double-blind procedure, 31 normal curve, 36

survey, 23 placebo effect, 31 statistical significance, 37

population, 24 experimental group, 31 culture, 39

random sample, 24 control group, 31 naturalistic observation, 24 independent variable, 32

Key Psychologists - History & Approaches

Calkins, Mary Whiton (1863-1930)

-studied psychology under William James

-denied a Ph.D. at Harvard, she established a psychological laboratory at Wellesley College -served as the first elected female president of the American Psychological Association (APA)

Darwin, Charles (1809-1882)

-a British naturalist whose controversial and groundbreaking theory of evolution had a significant influence on the early development of psychology

-his theory of natural selection continues to influence the modern evolutionary perspective

Dix, Dorthea (1802-1887)

-known as an American reformer who documented the deplorable conditions of how states cared for their insane poor

-helped persuade state legislatures to create the first generation of American mental hospitals

Freud, Sigmund (1856-1939)

-believed he discovered the unconscious mind; a part of our mind over which we do not have conscious control that determines, in part, how we think and behave

-proposed that we must examine the unconscious mind through dream analysis, word association, and other psychoanalytic therapy techniques if we are to understand human thought and behavior -has been criticized for being unscientific and creating unverifiable theories

-placed special emphasis on how childhood experiences influenced adult personality

Hall, G. Stanley (1844-1924)

-studied psychology under William James

-established America’s first psychology laboratory

-served as the first president of the American Psychological Association (APA)

James, William (1842-1910)

-published The Principles of Psychology, the science’s first textbook

-Harvard professor who played major role in establishing psychology in the United States -emphasized studying the purpose, or function, of behavior and mental experiences -James-Lange theory of emotion follows a three-part sequence: perception of a stimulus,

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Pavlov, Ivan (1849-1936)

-performed pioneering conditioning experiments on dogs (salivating)

-these experiments led to the development of the classical conditioning model of learning

Piaget, Jean (1896-1980) (Cognitive Developmental Theory)

-Swiss psychologist who focused on the rational, perceiving child who has the capacity to make sense of the world; developed a stage theory describing how infants, children, and adolescents use

distinctly different cognitive abilities to understand the world

-describes how children view the world through schemata, cognitive rules we use to interpret the world -normally we incorporate our experiences into these existing schemata in a process called assimilation -sometimes information doesn’t fit into or violates our schemata, so we must accommodate and change

our schemata.

Rogers, Carl (1902-1987)

-rejected Freud’s pessimistic view of human nature

-offered optimistic view that people are innately good, positive, forward-moving, constructive, realistic, and trustworthy

-argued that “self-concept” is the cornerstone of a person’s personality

-if self-concept matches a person’s life experiences, those people usually have higher self-esteem and better mental health

-Rogers believed that people are motivated to achieve their full potential or self-actualize

Skinner, B.F. (1904-1990)

-expanded the basic ideas of behaviorism to include the idea of reinforcement – environmental stimuli that either encourage or discourage certain responses

-helped establish and popularize operant conditioning model of learning -his intellectual influences lasted for decades

Washburn, Margaret Floy (1871-1939)

-she was the first American woman to be awarded a Ph.D. in psychology -she is best known for her experimental work in animal behavior

Watson, John B. (1878-1958)

-declared that psychology must limit itself to observable phenomena, not unobservable concepts like the unconscious mind, if it is to be considered a science; he broke away from Wundt and early

psychologists

-wanted to establish behaviorism as the dominant paradigm of psychology

-behaviorists contend that psychologists should look at only behavior and causes of behavior – stimuli (environmental events) and responses (physical reactions) – and not concern themselves with

describing elements of consciousness

Wertheimer, Max (1880-1943)

-Gestalt psychologist; argued against dividing human thought and behavior into discrete structures -Gestalt psychology tried to examine a person’s total experience because the way we experience the

world is more than just an accumulation of various perceptual experiences

-Gestalt theorists demonstrated that the whole experience is often more than just the sum of the parts of the experience

Wundt, Wilhelm (1832-1920)

-set up the first psychological laboratory in an apartment near the university at Leipzig, Germany -trained subjects in introspection; subjects were asked to accurately record their cognitive reactions to

simple stimuli

Key Theories & Processes 1. Structuralism

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3. Behaviorism

4. Gestalt

5. Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic

6. Humanism

7. Evolutionary

8. Biological

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UNIT 2: The Biology of the Mind

Unit 2

1. What are neurons, and how do they transmit information?

2. How do nerve cells communicate with other nerve cells?

3. How do neurotransmitters influence behavior, and how do drugs and other chemicals affect neurotransmission?

4. What are the functions of the nervous system’s main divisions?

5. How does the endocrine system – the body’s slower information system – transmit its messages?

6. How do neuroscientists study they brain’s connections to behavior and mind?

7. What are the functions of important lower-level brain structures?

8. What functions are served by the various cerebral cortex regions?

9. To what extent can a damaged brain reorganize itself?

10. What do split brains reveal about the functions of our two brain hemispheres?

11. How does handedness relate to brain organization?

Key Theories & Processes

1. Transmission of signals between neurons

2. Functions of various parts of the brain and nervous system

3. Functions of the endocrine system

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Key Terms

biological psychology, 48 sympathetic nervous system, 55 amygdala, 65

neuron, 49 parasympathetic nervous system, 56 hypothalamus, 66

sensory neurons, 49 reflex, 57

motor neurons, 49 endocrine system, 58 cerebral cortex, 68

interneurons, 49 hormones, 58 glial cells (glia), 68

dendrite, 49 adrenal glands, 59 frontal lobes, 68

axon, 49 pituitary gland, 59 parietal lobes, 68

myelin sheath, 49 lesion, 61 occipital lobes, 68

action potential, 49 electroencephalogram (EEG), 61 temporal lobes, 68 threshold, 50 PET (positron emission tomography) motor cortex, 69

synapse, 51 scan, 62 sensory cortex, 71

neurotransmitters, 51 MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), association areas, 72

reuptake, 51 62 plasticity, 73

endorphins, 53 fMRI (functional magnetic resonance neurogenesis, 74

nervous system, 55 imaging), 62 corpus callosum, 75

central nervous system, 55 medulla, 63 split brain, 75

peripheral nervous system, 55 reticular formation, 63

nerves, 55 thalamus, 64

somatic nervous system, 55 cerebellum, 64 autonomic nervous system, 55 limbic system, 65

Key Psychologists - Biological Bases of Behavior

Broca, Paul (1824-1880) (Broca’s Area)

-French physician and anatomist who discovered the speech production center of brain -located in the lower left frontal lobe and responsible for controlling the muscles

involved in producing speech (today this area in left cerebral hemisphere is called Broca’s Area) -damage to this area might leave us unable to make the muscle movements needed for speech

Darwin, Charles (1809-1882)

-a British naturalist whose controversial and groundbreaking theory of evolution had a significant influence on the early development of psychology

-his theory of natural selection continues to influence the modern evolutionary perspective

Gazzaniga, Michael (1939 - )

-continued Sperry’s research by advancing understanding of how the two cerebral hemispheres communicate with one another

Sperry, Roger (1913-1994)

-pioneered research with split-brain patients

-demonstrated that the brain’s right and left hemispheres have specialized functions

Wernicke, Carl (1848-1905) (Wernicke’s Area)

-German neurologist and psychiatrist

-discovered that damage to an area in left temporal lobe caused deficits in language comprehension -interprets both written and spoken speech; damage to this area would affect our ability to understand

language

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UNIT 3: Consciousness and the Two-Track Mind

Unit 3

1. What is the “dual processing” being revealed by today’s cognitive neuroscience?

2. How much information do we consciously attend to at once?

3. How do our biological rhythms influence our daily functioning and our sleep and dreams?

4. What is the biological rhythm of our sleep?

5. How does sleep loss affect us?

6. What is sleep’s function?

7. What are the major sleep disorders?

8. What do we dream?

9. What is the function of dreams?

10. What is hypnosis, and what powers does a hypnotist have over a hypnotized subject?

11. Is hypnosis an extension of normal consciousness or an altered state?

12. What are tolerance, dependence, and addiction, and what are some common misconceptions about addiction?

13. What are depressants, and what are their effects?

14. What are stimulants, and what are their effects?

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16. Why do some people become regular users of consciousness-altering drugs?

17. What are near-death experiences and what is the controversy over their explanation?

Key Terms

consciousness, 86 narcolepsy, 102 psychological dependence, 113

cognitive neuroscience, 87 sleep apnea, 102

dual processing, 87 night terrors, 103 addiction, 113

selective attention, 89 dream, 104 depressants, 114

inattentional blindness, 90manifest content, 104 barbiturates, 116

change blindness, 90 latent content, 105 opiates, 116

circadian rhythm, 92 REM rebound, 107 stimulants, 117

hypnosis, 108 amphetamines, 117

REM sleep, 93 posthypnotic suggestion, 109 methamphetamine, 117

alpha waves, 94 dissociation, 111 Ecstasy (MDMA), 120

sleep, 94 psychoactive drug, 112 hallucinogens, 121

hallucinations, 95 tolerance, 113 LSD, 121

delta waves, 95 withdrawal, 113 THC, 122

insomnia, 101 physical dependence, 113 near-death experience, 127

Key Psychologists - States of Consciousness

James, William (1842-1910)

-published The Principles of Psychology, the science’s first textbook

-Harvard professor who played major role in establishing psychology in the United States -emphasized studying the purpose, or function, of behavior and mental experiences -James-Lange theory of emotion follows a three-part sequence: perception of a stimulus,

physiological arousal, which then is interpreted as a specific emotion

Freud, Sigmund (1856-1939) (Freudian Dream Interpretation)

-according to Freudian psychoanalysis, a method to uncover the repressed information in the unconscious mind; Freud said that dreams were wish fulfilling, meaning that we act out our unconscious

desires in our dreams; manifest content is the literal content of our dreams; latent content is the unconscious meaning of the manifest content

-the ego protects dreamers from the material in the unconscious mind(protected sleep) by presenting these repressed desires in the form of symbols

Hilgard, Ernest (1904-2001)

-renowned for his research on hypnosis and pain control

-theorized a hypnotized person experiences a special state of dissociation or divided consciousness -one stream of mental activity that responds to the hypnotist’s suggestions, while a second stream of

mental activity is also processing information that is unavailable to the consciousness of the hypnotized subject; he called this second dissociated stream of mental activity the

“hidden observer”

Key Theories & Processes 1. Sleep stages

2. Theories of sleep and dreaming

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UNIT 4: Nature, Nurture, and Human Diversity

Unit 4

1. What are genes, and how do behavior geneticists explain our individual differences?

2. What is heritability, and how does is relate to individuals and groups?

3. What is the promise of molecular genetics research?

4. How do evolutionary psychologists use natural selection to explain behavior tendencies?

5. How might an evolutionary psychologist explain gender differences in mating preferences?

6. What are the key criticisms of evolutionary psychology?

7. To what extent are our lives shaped by early stimulation, by parents, and by peers?

8. How do cultural norms affect our behavior?

9. How do individualist and collectivist cultural influences affect people?

10. What are some ways in which males and females tend to be alike and to differ?

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Key Terms

behavior genetics, 134 interaction, 142 collectivism, 155

environment, 134 molecular genetics, 142 aggression, 160

chromosomes, 134 evolutionary psychology, 143 X chromosome, 162

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), 134 natural selection, 143 Y chromosome, 162

genes, 134 mutation, 144 testosterone, 162

genome, 135 gender, 146 role, 164

identical twins, 135 culture, 153 gender role, 164

fraternal twins, 135 norm, 154 gender identity, 165

temperament, 139 personal space, 154 gender typing, 165

heritability, 140 individualism, 155 social learning theory, 165

Key Psychologists

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UNIT 5: Developing Through the Life Span

Unit 5

1. How does life develop before birth?

2. What are some newborn abilities, and how do researchers explore infants’ mental abilities?

3. During infancy and childhood, how do the brain and motor skills develop?

4. From the perspective of Piaget and of today’s researchers, how does a child’s mind develop?

5. How do parent-infant attachment bonds form?

6. How have psychologists studied attachment differences, and what have they learned?

7. Do parental neglect, family disruption, or day care affect children’s attachments?

8. How do children’s self-concepts develop, and how are children’s traits related to parenting styles?

9. What physical changes mark adolescence?

10. How did Piaget, Kohlberg, and later researchers describe adolescent cognitive and moral development?

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12. What is emerging adulthood?

13. What physical changes occur during middle and late adulthood?

14. How do memory and intelligence change with age?

15. What themes and influences mark our social journey from early adulthood to death?

Key Terms

developmental psychology, 173 preoperational stage, 183 puberty, 197

zygote, 174 conservation, 183 primary sex characteristics, 197

embryo, 174 egocentrism, 183 secondary sex characteristics, 197

fetus, 174 theory of mind, 184 menarche, 198

teratogens, 175 concrete operational stage, 185 identity, 203 fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), 175 formal operational stage, 185 social identity, 203

habituation, 175 autism, 186 intimacy, 204

maturation, 177 stranger anxiety, 188 emerging adulthood, 206

cognition, 179 attachment, 188 menopause, 207

schema, 180 critical period, 189 cross-sectional study, 214

assimilation, 180 imprinting, 189 longitudinal study, 214

accommodation, 180 basic trust, 191 crystallized intelligence, 215

sensorimotor stage, 181 self-concept, 194 fluid intelligence, 215

object permanence, 181 adolescence, 196 social clock, 217

Key Psychologists - Developmental Psychology

Ainsworth, Mary (1913-1999)

-development psychologist who devised a research procedure called the Strange Situation to observe attachment relationships between infants and their mothers

-used labels of secure attachment and insecure attachment

-securely attached infants tend to be well-adjusted, form successful social relationships, and perform better at school

-insecurely attached infants tend to form shallow relationships, appear withdrawn, and sometimes display a strong need for affection

Bandura, Albert (1925- )

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Baumrind, Diana (1927- )

-best known for her work on parenting styles based on “parental responsiveness” and “parental demandingness”

-permissive parents = set few rules, make minimal demands, allow children to reach own decisions -authoritative parents = set firm rules, make reasonable demands, listen to child’s viewpoint while still

insisting on responsible behavior

-authoritarian parents = set rigid rules, enforce strict punishments, and rarely listen to child’s viewpoint

Erikson, Erik (1902-1994)

-influential theory on social development; said as we progress from infancy to old age, we enter eight psychosocial stages of development

-each stage corresponds with physical changes taking place in a distinctive setting

-combination of physiological changes and new social environments creates psychosocial crisis -particularly interested in adolescents struggle to overcome “role confusion” and find an identity -coined the phrase “identity crisis” to describe adolescents struggle to create meaningful identity

Freud, Sigmund (1856-1939)

Gilligan, Carol (1936- )

-best known for her critique of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development

-wrote book In a Different Voice arguing the participants in Kohlberg’s studies were all male -said scoring method Kohlberg used was biased toward boys

-she said moral concerns of women focus on caring and compassion

Harlow, Harry (1905-1981)

-developmental psychologist who conducted a famous series of experiments on rhesus monkeys -gave orphaned baby monkeys two artificial surrogate “mothers”

-a cloth “mother” provided no milk but offered a soft terrycloth cover -a wire “mother” provided milk but offered no contact comfort

-whenever the baby monkeys were frightened, they preferred the cloth mother for protection/comfort

Kohlberg, Lawrence (1927-1987)

-American psychologist who used moral dilemmas to study moral reasoning -stages of moral development is milestone in developmental psychology

Lorenz, Konrad (1903-1989)

-regarded as the founder of ethology, the comparative study of animal behavior (including humans) and their natural surroundings

-studied imprinting and aggression

-concluded that the mechanism inhibiting aggression works less well in humans than among other species

Piaget, Jean (1896-1980) (Cognitive Developmental Theory)

-Swiss psychologist who focused on the rational, perceiving child who has the capacity to make sense of the world; developed a stage theory describing how infants, children, and adolescents use

distinctly different cognitive abilities to understand the world

-describes how children view the world through schemata, cognitive rules we use to interpret the world -normally we incorporate our experiences into these existing schemata in a process called assimilation -sometimes information doesn’t fit into or violates our schemata, so we must accommodate and change

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Vygotsky, Lev (1896-1934)

-pioneering Russian psychologist and author

-placed emphasis on how culture and social interactions with parents and other significant people influenced a child’s cognitive development.

-Vygotsky said children learn their culture’s habits of mind through a process he called internalization

1. Erikson’s Theory of Personality Development

2. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

3. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

4. Types of Attachment

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UNIT 6: Sensation & Perception

Unit 6

1. What are sensation and perception? What do we mean by bottom-up processing and top-down processing?

2. What are the absolute and difference thresholds, and do stimuli below the absolute threshold have any influence?

3. What is the function of sensory adaptation?

4. What is the energy that we see as visible light?

5. How does the eye transform light energy into neural messages?

6. How does the brain process visual information?

7. What theories help us understand color vision?

8. What are the characteristics of air pressure waves that we hear as sound?

9. How does the ear transform sound energy into neural messages?

10. What theories help us understand pitch perception?

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12. What are the common causes of hearing loss, and why does controversy surround cochlear implants?

13. How do we sense touch and sense our body’s position and movement? How do we experience pain?

14. How do we experience taste?

15. How do we experience smell?

16. How did the Gestalt psychologists understand perceptual organization?

17. How do figure-ground and grouping principles contribute to our perceptions?

18. How do we see the world in three dimensions?

19. How do we perceive motion?

20. How do perceptual constancies help us organize our sensations into meaningful perceptions?

21. What does research on sensory restriction and restored vision reveal about the effects of experience?

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23. How do our expectations, contexts, and emotions influence our perceptions?

24. How do human factors psychologists work to create user-friendly machines and work settings?

25. What are the claims of ESP, and what have most research psychologists concluded after putting these claims to the test?

Key Terms

sensation, 230 pupil, 237 frequency, 246

perception, 230 iris, 237 pitch, 246

bottom-up processing, 230 lens, 237 middle ear, 246

top-down processing, 230 retina, 237 cochlea, 246

psychophysics, 231 accommodation, 237 inner ear, 246

absolute threshold, 231 rods, 238 place theory, 249

signal detection theory, 231 cones, 238 frequency theory, 249

subliminal, 232 optic nerve, 238 conduction hearing loss, 250

priming, 232 blind spot, 238 sensorineural hearing loss, 250

difference threshold, 234 fovea, 239 cochlear implant, 250

Weber’s law, 234 feature detectors, 241 kinesthesis, 254

sensory adaptation, 234 parallel processing, 242

transduction, 236 Young-Helmholtz trichromatic vestibular sense, 254 wavelength, 237 (three-color) theory, 244 gate-control theory, 255

hue, 237 opponent-process theory, 244 sensory interaction, 259

intensity, 237 audition, 245 gestalt, 263

figure-ground, 264 retinal disparity, 267 perceptual adaptation, 274

grouping, 265 monocular cues, 267 perceptual set, 275

depth perception, 266 phi phenomenon, 269 human factors psychology, 280

visual cliff, 266 perceptual constancy, 269 extrasensory perception (ESP), 282

binocular cues, 266 color constancy, 271 parapsychology, 282

Key Psychologists - Sensation & Perception

Fechner, Gustav (1801-1887)

-German experimental psychologist who demonstrated that mental processes can be measured

Hubel, David (1926- )

-Canadian neurophysiologist whose research on feature detectors helped demonstrate the presence of specialized neurons in the occipital lobe’s visual cortex that have the ability to respond to specific features of an image

Weber, Ernst (1795-1878) (Weber’s Law)

-German physician who discovered the just noticeable difference (JND) -Weber’s Law describes the difference thresholds for different senses

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Wiesel, Torsten (1924- )

-Swedish neurophysiologist who collaborated with Hubel. Their joint work expanded the scientific knowledge of sensory processing and perception.

1. Hearing, Vision, Touch, Taste, Smell, Vestibular, Pain

2. Top-down processing

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UNIT 7: Learning

Big Questions (Unit Focus) Unit 7

1. What are some basic forms of learning?

2. What is classical conditioning, and how did Pavlov’s work influence behaviorism?

3. How does a neutral stimulus become a conditioned stimulus?

4. In classical conditioning, what are the processes of acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination?

5. Do cognitive processes and biological constraints affect classical conditioning?

6. Why is Pavlov’s work important?

7. What have been some applications of classical conditioning?

8. What is operant conditioning, and how does it differ from classical conditioning?

9. What are the basic types of reinforcers?

10. How do different reinforcement schedules affect behavior?

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12. Do cognitive processes and biological constraints affect operant conditioning?

13. How might operant conditioning principles be applied at school, in sports, at work, and at home?

14. What is observational learning, and how is it enabled by mirror neurons?

15. What is the impact of prosocial modeling and of antisocial modeling?

Key Terms

learning, 291 respondent behavior, 304 fixed-ratio schedule, 309

associative learning, 292 operant conditioning, 304 variable-ratio schedule, 309 classical conditioning, 294 operant behavior, 304 fixed-interval schedule, 309

behaviorism, 294 law of effect, 305 variable-interval schedule, 309

unconditioned response (UR), 295 operant chamber, 305 punishment, 310 unconditioned stimulus (US), 295 shaping, 305 cognitive map, 312 conditioned response (CR), 295 reinforcer, 307 latent learning, 312 conditioned stimulus (CS), 295 positive reinforcement, 307 intrinsic motivation, 312 acquisition, 296 negative reinforcement, 307 extrinsic motivation, 312 higher-order conditioning, 296 primary reinforcer, 307 observational learning, 317

extinction, 297 conditioned reinforcer, 307 modeling, 317

spontaneous recovery, 298 continuous reinforcement, 308 mirror neurons, 318 generalization, 298 partial (intermittent) reinforcement, 308 prosocial behavior, 321 discrimination, 299

Key Psychologists - Learning

-best known for his famous “Bobo doll” experiments illustrating the role of modeling in human behavior. -he contends that observational learning is responsible for most human behavior

Garcia, John (1917- )

-conducted pioneering research on taste aversion; discovered that when rats drank flavored water before becoming nauseated from a drug that produced gastrointestinal distress, they acquired a

conditioned taste aversion for the flavored water.

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Pavlov, Ivan (1849-1936)

-a Russian physiologist who inadvertently discovered a kind of learning while studying digestion in dogs -found that dogs learned to pair the sounds in the environment where they were fed with the food that

was given to them and began to salivate simply upon hearing the sounds

-deduced the basic principle of classical conditioning. People and animals can learn to associate neutral stimuli (ex: sounds) with stimuli that produce reflexive, involuntary responses (ex: food) and will

learn to respond similarly to the new stimulus as they did to the old one (ex: salivate).

Rescorla, Robert (1940- )

-refined Pavlov’s principle that classical conditioning occurs simply because two stimuli are closely associated in time; Rescorla indicated that the conditioned stimulus must be a reliable signal that predicts the presentations of the unconditioned stimulus.

-his research indicated that the “animal behaves like a scientist, detecting causal relationships among events and using a range of information about those events to make the relevant inferences

Skinner, B.F. (1904-1990)

-coined the term operant conditioning; best-known behaviorist psychologist

-invented a special contraption, aptly named a Skinner box, to use in his research of animal learning -a Skinner box usually has a way to deliver food to an animal and a lever to press or disk to peck in order

to get the food

-the food is called a reinforcer, and the process of giving the food is called reinforcement

Thorndike, Edward (Thorndike’s Law of Effect)

-was one of the first people to research operant conditioning; explained this kind of learning through the law of effect; conducted the first systematic investigations of animal behavior.

-Law of Effect states that if the consequences of a behavior are pleasant, the stimulus-response (S-R) connection will be strengthened and the likelihood of the behavior will increase. However, if the consequences of a behavior are unpleasant, the S-R connection will weaken and the likelihood of

the behavior will decrease.

Tolman, Edward (1898-1959)

-challenged Thorndike and Skinner’s belief that behavior is a complex chain of stimulus-response connections that is strengthened by a rewarding consequence.

-Tolman conducted a series of experiments demonstrating that rats formed a cognitive map or mental representation of a maze. They then used this prior learning to find food placed at the end of a

maze.

-Tolman concluded that learning involves the acquisition and use of knowledge rather than simply conditioned changes in outward behavior.

Watson, John B. (1878-1958)

-declared that psychology must limit itself to observable phenomena, not unobservable concepts like the unconscious mind, if it is to be considered a science; he broke away from Wundt and early

psychologists

-wanted to establish behaviorism as the dominant paradigm of psychology

-behaviorists contend that psychologists should look at only behavior and causes of behavior – stimuli (environmental events) and responses (physical reactions) – and not concern themselves with

describing elements of consciousness Key Theories & Processes

1. Classical Conditioning

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3. Observational Learning

UNIT 8: Memory

1. How do psychologists describe the human memory system?

2. What information do we encode automatically? What information do we encode effortfully, and how does the distribution of practice influence retention?

3. What effortful processing methods aid in forming memories?

4. What is sensory memory?

5. What are the duration and capacity of short-term and of long-term memory?

6. How does the brain store our memories?

7. How do we get information out of memory?

8. How do external contexts and internal emotions influence memory retrieval?

9. Why do we forget?

10. How do misinformation, imagination, and source amnesia influence our memory construction? How real-seeming are false memories?

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12. How can an understanding of memory contribute to more effective study techniques?

Key Terms

memory, 327 visual encoding, 333 hippocampus, 344

encoding, 328 acoustic encoding, 333 recall, 345

storage, 328 semantic encoding, 333 recognition, 345

retrieval, 328 imagery, 335 relearning, 345

sensory memory, 329 mnemonics, 335 priming, 347

short-term memory, 329 chunking, 336 déjà vu, 348

long-term memory, 329 iconic memory, 337 mood-congruent memory, 349

working memory, 329 echoic memory, 338 proactive interference, 353

automatic processing, 330 long-term potentiation (LTP), 340 retroactive interference, 353 effortful processing, 331 flashbulb memory, 342 repression, 355

rehearsal, 331 amnesia, 342 misinformation effect, 357

spacing effect, 332 implicit memory, 343 source amnesia, 358

serial position effect, 332 explicit memory, 343

Key Psychologists

Key Theories & Processes 1. Short-Term Memory

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UNIT 9: Thinking & Language

Unit 9

1. What are the functions of concepts?

2. What strategies assist our problem solving, and what obstacles hinder it?

3. How do heuristics, overconfidence, and belief perseverance influence our decisions and judgments?

4. How do smart thinkers use intuition?

5. What is framing?

6. What are the structural components of language?

7. What are the milestones in language development?

8. How do we learn language?

9. What brain areas are involved in language processing?

10. What is the relationship between language and thinking?

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Key Terms

cognition, 369 representativeness heuristic, 374 semantics, 384

concept, 369 availability heuristic, 375 syntax, 384

prototype, 370 overconfidence, 376 babbling stage, 385

algorithm, 371 belief perseverance, 377 one-word stage, 385

heuristic, 371 intuition, 378 two-word stage, 386

insight, 371 framing, 381 telegraphic speech, 386

confirmation bias, 372 language, 382 aphasia, 389

fixation, 373 phoneme, 383 Broca’s area, 389

mental set, 373 morpheme, 384 Wernicke’s area, 389

functional fixedness, 373 grammar, 384 linguistic determinism, 391

Key Psychologists - Cognition

Chomsky, Noam (1928- )

-renowned linguist who argues that young children possess an innate capacity to learn and produce speech

-notes that children in widely different cultures progress through the same stages of language development at about the same time

-hypothesized that humans learn language because of innate speech-enabling structures called the language acquisition device or LAD

Ebbinghaus, Hermann (1850-1909)

-German psychologist who conducted pioneering research on forgetting

-famous forgetting curve shows a rapid loss of memories of relatively meaningless information, followed by a very gradual decline of the remaining information

Kohler, Wolfgang (1887-1967)

-like Tolman, Kohler believed behaviorists underestimated animals’ cognitive processes and abilities -in an experiment, Kohler suspended bananas just outside the reach of a caged chimp named Sultan -unlike Skinner’s rats and pigeons, Sultan did not use trial-and-error to solve the problem

-he studied the situation, and in a flash of insight, used a stick to knock down the fruit -Kohler called this sudden understanding of a problem insight

Loftus, Elizabeth (1944- )

-influential but controversial cognitive psychologist

-research on the misinformation effect demonstrated that eyewitness testimony is often unreliable and can be altered by simply giving a witness incorrect post-event information

Miller, George A. (1920- )

-best known for his paper “The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two”

-presented convincing evidence that the capacity of short-term memory is limited to seven items (plus or minus two) of information.

-the memory span depends on the category of chunks used; the span is around seven for digits, six for letters, and five for words

1. Effortful vs. Automatic Processing

2. Deep vs. Shallow Processing

3. Focused vs. Divided Attention

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UNIT 10: Intelligence

Unit 10

1. What argues for and against considering intelligence as one general mental ability?

2. How do Gardner’s and Sternberg’s theories of multiple intelligences differ?

3. What is creativity, and what fosters it?

4. What makes up emotional intelligence?

5. To what extent is intelligence related to brain anatomy and neural processing speed?

6. When and why were intelligence tests created?

7. What’s the difference between aptitude and achievement tests, and how can we develop and evaluate them?

8. How stable are intelligence scores over the life span?

9. What are the traits of those at the low and high intelligence extremes?

10. What does evidence reveal about hereditary and environmental influences on intelligence?

11. How and why do gender and racial groups differ in mental ability scores?

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Key Terms

intelligence test, 406 Stanford-Binet, 417 reliability, 421

intelligence, 406 intelligence quotient (IQ), 417 validity, 421

general intelligence (g), 406 achievement tests, 418 content validity, 421

factor analysis, 406 aptitude tests, 418 predictive validity, 421

savant syndrome, 407 Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale mental retardation, 425

creativity, 410 (WAIS), 418 Down syndrome, 425

emotional intelligence, 412 standardization, 419 stereotype threat, 438

mental age, 416 normal curve, 419

Key Psychologists - Testing & Individual Differences

Binet, Alfred (1857-1911)

-French psychologist who invented the first usable intelligence test -made distinction between a child’s mental and chronological age

Galton, Francis (1822-1911)

-multifaceted British psychologist who applied statistics to variations in human abilities -developed the statistical concept of “correlation”

-was the first to demonstrate that the “normal distribution” could be applied to intelligence

Gardner, Howard (1943- )

-best known for his theory on multiple intelligences

-disagrees with Spearman on there being a single general intelligence

-he believes there are a number of intelligences including linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, naturalist, interpersonal, and intrapersonal

Spearman, Charles (1863-1945)

-British psychologist who observed individual’s scores on various tests of intellectual performance correlated with one another

-people who tend to do well on one test of intellectual ability also tend to do well on other similar tests -based on his observations, Spearman proposed that intelligence is a single, underlying factor, which he

termed “general intelligence” or the “g factor”

Sternberg, Robert (1949- )

-American psychologist best known for triarchic theory of intelligence

-triarchic theory distinguishes between analytic, creative, and practical intelligences -he believes each of these intelligences are learned and may be developed and enhanced

Terman, Louis (1877-1956)

-best known for inventing the Stanford-Binet IQ test

-computed a child’s intelligence quotient (IQ) by dividing mental age by chronological age and multiplying by 100

-also known for longitudinal study of gifted children

Wechsler, David (1896-1981)

-American psychologist who developed a series of widely used intelligence tests

-instead of using Terman’s IQ approach, Wechsler determined how far a person’s score deviates from a bell-shaped normal distribution of scores; most intelligence tests now use this system

1. Spearman’s General Intelligence (g)

2. Gardner’s Multiple (8) Intelligences

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UNIT 11: Motivation & Work

Unit 11

1. From what perspectives do psychologists view motivated behavior?

2. What physiological factors produce hunger?

3. What psychological and cultural factors influence hunger?

4. How do anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge-eating disorder demonstrate the influence of psychological forces on physiologically motivated behaviors?

5. What factors predispose some people to become and remain obese?

6. What stages mark the human sexual response cycle?

7. Do hormones influence human sexual motivation?

8. How do internal and external stimuli influence sexual motivation?

9. What factors influence teen pregnancy and risk of sexually transmitted infections?

10. What has research taught us about sexual orientation?

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12. What evidence points to our human need to belong?

13. How do personnel psychologists help organizations with employee selection, work placement, and performance appraisal?

14. What is the role of organizational psychologists?

Key Terms

motivation, 443 anorexia nervosa, 453 flow, 482

instinct, 444 bulimia nervosa, 453 industrial-organizational (I/O)

drive-reduction theory, 445 binge-eating disorder, 453 psychology, 482 homeostasis, 445 sexual response cycle, 465 personnel psychology, 482

incentive, 445 refractory period, 466 organizational psychology, 482

hierarchy of needs, 446 sexual disorder, 466 structured interviews, 485

glucose, 449 estrogen, 466 achievement motivation, 487

set point, 451 testosterone, 466 task leadership, 491

basal metabolic rate, 451 sexual orientation, 471 social leadership, 492

Key Psychologists - Motivation & Emotion

Cannon, Walter (1871-1945) and Philip Bard (1898-1977)

-developed the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

-demonstrated that similar physiological changes correspond with drastically different emotional states -suggests that the biological change and the cognitive awareness of the emotional state occur

simultaneously

James, William (1842-1910) and Carl Lange (1834-1900)

-developed the James-Lange theory of emotion

-suggests we feel emotion because of biological changes caused by stress

-Example: when the big bad wolf jumps out of the woods, Little Red Riding Hood’s heart races. This physiological change causes her to feel afraid.

Kinsey, Alfred (1894-1956)

-renowned for his pioneering research on human sexuality

-although controversial, his extensive research provides data that is still used as a baseline for modern research

Maslow, Abraham (1908-1970) (Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs)

-founder of humanistic psychology; focused on what constituted positive mental health -psychologist that pointed out that not all needs are created equal

-predicts which needs we will be motivated to satisfy first

-we will act to satisfy biological needs like survival and safety; then emotional needs like love and self-esteem; then we will want to attain life goals like satisfaction and self-actualization, a need

to fulfill our unique potential as a person

Schachter, Stanley (1922-1997) (Two-Factor Theory of emotion)

-explains emotional experiences in a more complete way than either James-Lange or Cannon-Bard -suggests that both our physical responses and our cognitive labels (our mental interpretations) combine

to cause any particular emotional response.

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Selye, Hans (1907-1982)

-best known for his study on stress

-Selye’s three-stage general adaptation syndrome, stress begins with an alarm reaction when people confront a stress-producing event by mobilizing internal resources such as producing adrenaline,

to bring about the fight or flight response. If the stressor continues, the body enters a second stage of resistance characterized by heightened physiological arousal and a sudden outpouring of hormones. Long-term exposure to the stressor event eventually leads to a third stage of

exhaustion that depletes the body’s resources and leads to physical disorders, vulnerability to illness, and a complete collapse

Key Theories & Processes 1. Drive-Reduction Theory

2. Arousal Theory

3. General Adaptation Theory

4. James-Lange Theory

5. Cannon-Bard Theory

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UNIT 12: Emotions, Stress, and Health

Unit 12

1. What are the components of an emotion?

2. What is the link between emotional arousal and the autonomic nervous system?

3. Do different emotions activate different physiological and brain-pattern responses?

4. To experience emotions, must we consciously interpret and label them?

5. How do we communicate nonverbally?

6. Are nonverbal expressions of emotion universally understood?

7. Do our facial expressions influence our feelings?

8. What is the function of fear, and how do we learn fears?

9. What are the causes and consequences of anger?

10. What are the causes and consequences of happiness?

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12. What events provoke stress responses?

13. Why are some of us more prone than others to coronary heart disease?

14. How does stress make us more vulnerable to disease?

15. What factors affect our ability to cope with stress?

16. What tactics can we use to manage stress and reduce stress-related ailments?

Key Terms

emotion, 498 behavioral medicine, 527 lymphocytes, 534

James-Lange theory, 498 health psychology, 527 coping, 538

Cannon-Bard theory, 498 stress, 528 problem-focused coping, 538

two-factor theory, 498 general adaptation syndrome (GAS), 529 emotion-focused coping, 538

polygraph, 504 aerobic exercise, 543

catharsis, 518 coronary heart disease, 532 biofeedback, 544

feel-good, do-good Type A, 532 complementary and alternative

phenomenon, 520 medicine (CAM), 546

subjective well-being, 520 Type B, 532

adaptation-level psychophysiological illness, 534 phenomenon, 524

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Key Psychologists - Motivation & Emotion

Cannon, Walter (1871-1945) and Philip Bard (1898-1977)

-developed the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

-demonstrated that similar physiological changes correspond with drastically different emotional states -suggests that the biological change and the cognitive awareness of the emotional state occur

simultaneously

James, William (1842-1910) and Carl Lange (1834-1900)

-developed the James-Lange theory of emotion

-suggests we feel emotion because of biological changes caused by stress

-Example: when the big bad wolf jumps out of the woods, Little Red Riding Hood’s heart races. This physiological change causes her to feel afraid.

Kinsey, Alfred (1894-1956)

-renowned for his pioneering research on human sexuality

-although controversial, his extensive research provides data that is still used as a baseline for modern research

Maslow, Abraham (1908-1970) (Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs)

-we will act to satisfy biological needs like survival and safety; then emotional needs like love and self-esteem; then we will want to attain life goals like satisfaction and self-actualization, a need

to fulfill our unique potential as a person

Schachter, Stanley (1922-1997) (Two-Factor Theory of emotion)

-explains emotional experiences in a more complete way than either James-Lange or Cannon-Bard -suggests that both our physical responses and our cognitive labels (our mental interpretations) combine

to cause any particular emotional response.

-for example, if you cry after breaking up with your boyfriend/girlfriend you label your emotion as sadness, whereas if you cry at your sibling’s graduation you label your emotion as happiness

Selye, Hans (1907-1982)

-best known for his study on stress

-Selye’s three-stage general adaptation syndrome, stress begins with an alarm reaction when people confront a stress-producing event by mobilizing internal resources such as producing adrenaline,

to bring about the fight or flight response. If the stressor continues, the body enters a second stage of resistance characterized by heightened physiological arousal and a sudden outpouring of hormones. Long-term exposure to the stressor event eventually leads to a third stage of

exhaustion that depletes the body’s resources and leads to physical disorders, vulnerability to illness, and a complete collapse

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UNIT 13: Personality

Unit 13

1. What was Freud’s view of personality and its development?

2. How did Freud think people defended themselves against anxiety?

3. Which of Freud’s ideas did his followers accept or reject?

4. What are projective tests, and how are they used?

5. How do contemporary psychologists view Freud and the unconscious?

6. How did humanistic psychologists view personality, and what was their goal in studying personality?

7. How did humanistic psychologists assess a person’s sense of self?

8. How has the humanistic perspective influenced psychology? What criticisms has it faced?

9. How do psychologists use traits to describe personality?

10. What are personality inventories, and what are their strengths and weaknesses as trait-assessment tools?

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12. Does research support the consistency of personality traits over time and across situations?

13. In the view of social-cognitive psychologists, what mutual influences shape an individual’s personality?

14. What are the causes and consequences of personal control?

15. What underlying principle guides social-cognitive psychologists in their assessment of people’s behavior and beliefs?

16. What has the social-cognitive perspective contributed to the study of personality, and what criticisms has it faced?

17. Are we helped or hindered by high self-esteem?

Key Terms

personality, 553 projection, 557 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality

free association, 554 rationalization, 557 Inventory (MMPI), 570

psychoanalysis, 554 displacement, 558 empirically derived test, 570

unconscious, 554 denial, 558 social-cognitive perspective, 576

id, 555 collective unconscious, 559 reciprocal determinism, 577

ego, 555 projective test, 559 personal control, 578

superego, 555 Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), 559 external locus of control, 578

psychosexual stages, 556 internal locus of control, 578

Oedipus complex, 556 Rorschach inkblot test, 560 learned helplessness, 579 identification, 556 terror-management theory, 563 positive psychology, 581

fixation, 556 self-actualization, 565 self, 584

defense mechanisms, 557 unconditional positive regard, 565 spotlight effect, 585

repression, 557 self-concept, 566 self-esteem, 585

regression, 557 trait, 568 self-serving bias, 586

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Key Psychologists - Personality

Adler, Alfred (1870-1937)

-career in both Europe and the U.S.

-called a Neo-Freudian, he used psychiatry in social work and early childhood education

-introduced mental health concepts such as “inferiority feeling”, “life-style”, “striving for superiority”, and “social interest”

-he tried to help patients “see the power of self-determination” and “command the courage” to alter their interpretation of events and life experiences

-best known for his famous “Bobo doll” experiments illustrating the role of modeling in human behavior -he contends that observational learning is responsible for most human behavior

Costa, Paul (1942- ) and Robert McCrae (1949- )

-personality theorists best known for the Five-Factor Model of Personality (“Big-Five Model”)

-Big-Five Model identifies openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism as broad domains or dimensions of personality, and the basic structure behind all personality traits

Freud, Sigmund(1856-1939)

Jung, Carl (1875-1961)

-Neo-Freudian who developed the concept of the “collective unconscious”

-collective unconscious includes shared human experiences present in cultural myths such as the innocent child, the wise grandfather, or the rebellious son

-said humans were symbol-using beings

Maslow, Abraham (1908-1970)

-we will act to satisfy biological needs like survival and safety; then emotional needs like love and self-esteem; then we will want to attain life goals like satisfaction and self-actualization, a need to fulfill our unique potential as a person

Rogers, Carl (1902-1987)

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Key Theories & Processes 1. Psychoanalytic Theory

2. Humanistic Theory

3. Cognitive Theory

4. Trait Theory

5. Social Learning Theory

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UNIT 14: Psychological Disorders

Unit 14

1. How should we draw the line between normality and disorder?

2. What perspectives can help us understand psychological disorders?

3. How and why do clinicians classify psychological disorders?

4. Why do some psychologists criticize the use of diagnostic labels?

5. What are anxiety disorders, and how do they differ from ordinary worries and fears?

6. What produces the thoughts and feelings that mark anxiety disorders?

7. What are somatoform disorders?

8. What are dissociative disorders, and why are they controversial?

9. What are mood disorders, and what forms do they take?

10. What causes mood disorders, and what might explain the Western world’s rising incidence of depression among youth and young adults?

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12. What causes schizophrenia?

13. What characteristics are typical of personality disorders?

14. How many people suffer, or have suffered, from a psychological disorder?

Key Terms

psychological disorder, 594 obsessive-compulsive dissociative identity attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (OCD), 603 disorder (DID), 609 disorder (ADHD), 595 post-traumatic stress disorder mood disorders, 611

medical model, 596 (PTSD), 604 major depressive disorder, 612

DSM-IV-TR, 597 post-traumatic growth, 605 mania, 613

anxiety disorders, 601 somatoform disorder, 608 bipolar disorder, 613 generalized anxiety disorder, 602 conversion disorder, 608 schizophrenia, 622

panic disorder, 602 hypochondriasis, 609 delusions, 622

phobia, 603 dissociative disorders, 609 personality disorders, 628

antisocial personality disorder, 629 Key Psychologists

Key Theories & Processes 1. Medical Model

2. Psychoanalytic

3. Humanistic

4. Cognitive

5. Biological

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UNIT 15: Therapy

1. What are the aims and methods of psychoanalysis, and how have they been adapted in psychodynamic theory?

2. What are the basic themes of humanistic therapy, such as Rogers’ client-centered approach?

3. What are the assumptions and techniques of the behavior therapies?

4. What are the goals and techniques of the cognitive therapies?

5. What are the aims and benefits of group and family therapy?

6. Does psychotherapy work? Who decides?

7. Are some therapies more effective than others?

8. How do alternative therapies fare under scientific scrutiny?

9. What three elements are shared by all forms of psychotherapy?

10. How do culture and values influence the therapist-client relationship?

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12. How effective is electroconvulsive therapy, and what other brain-stimulation options may offer relief from severe depression?

13. What is psychosurgery?

14. How, by caring for their bodies with a healthy lifestyle, might people find some relief from depression?

15. What is the rationale for preventive mental health programs?

Key Terms

eclectic approach, 637 counterconditioning, 643 biomedical therapy, 660

psychotherapy, 638 exposure therapies, 643 psychopharmacology, 660

psychoanalysis, 638 systematic desensitization, 643 antipsychotic drugs, 661 resistance, 639 virtual reality exposure therapy, 644 tardive dyskinesia, 661 interpretation, 639 aversive conditioning, 644 antianxiety drugs, 661

transference, 639 token economy, 646 antidepressant drugs, 662

psychodynamic therapy, 640 cognitive therapy, 646 electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), 664

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Key Psychologists - Treatment of Abnormal Behavior

Beck, Aaron (1921- )

-regarded as the father of cognitive therapy

-his pioneering theories are widely used to treat clinical depression

Ellis, Albert (1913-2007)

-grandfather of cognitive-behavioral therapy; used Rational-Emotive approach (estab. 1955) -called the “A-B-C model” – Activating event is linked through Belief to the emotional Consequences -today it is called Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy (REBT)

-worked with clients to realize some beliefs such as “everyone should treat me with respect”

-helped them see more rational views such as “I like people to treat me with respect, but realize some people may not”

-this leads to a reduction in negative emotions

Freud, Sigmund(1856-1939)

Jones, Mary Cover (1896-1987)

-conducted pioneering research in applying behavioral techniques to therapy -she is often called the “mother of behavior therapy”

Rogers, Carl (1902-1987)

-Rogers believed that people are motivated to achieve their full potential or self-actualize

Skinner, B.F. (1904-1990)

-coined the term operant conditioning; best-known behaviorist psychologist

-invented a special contraption, aptly named a Skinner box, to use in his research of animal learning -a Skinner box usually has a way to deliver food to an animal and a lever to press or disk to peck in order

to get the food

-the food is called a reinforcer, and the process of giving the food is called reinforcement

Wolpe, Joseph (1915-1997)

-South African psychologist who perfected a technique for treating anxiety-producing phobias that he named systematic desensitization

-he first taught client to maintain a state of deep relaxation, then he worked with client to create a hierarchy of anxiety-arousing situations and images

-they began with the least threatening experience and gradually moved to the most threatening

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UNIT 16: Social Psychology

Unit 16

1. How do we tend to explain others’ behavior and our own?

2. Does what we think affect what we do, or does what we do affect what we think?

3. What do experiments on conformity and compliance reveal about the power of social influence?

4. How is our behavior affected by the presence of others or by being part of a group?

5. What are group polarization and groupthink?

6. How much power do we have as individuals? Can a minority sway a majority?

7. What is prejudice?

8. What are the social and emotional roots of prejudice?

9. What are the cognitive roots of prejudice?

10. What biological factors make us more prone to hurt one another?

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12. Why do we befriend or fall in love with some people but not with others?

13. How does romantic love typically change as time passes?

14. When are we most – and least – likely to help?

15. How do social traps and mirror-image perceptions fuel social conflict?

16. How can we transform feelings of prejudice, aggression, and conflict into attitudes that promote peace?

Key Terms

social psychology, 673 group polarization, 689 companionate love, 711

attribution theory, 673 groupthink, 690 equity, 711

fundamental attribution prejudice, 691 self-disclosure, 711

error, 674

attitude, 675 stereotype, 691 altruism, 712

central route to persuasion, 676 discrimination, 691 bystander effect, 713 peripheral route to persuasion, 676 ingroup, 696 social exchange theory, 714 foot-in-the-door phenomenon, 676 outgroup, 696 reciprocity norm, 714

role, 677 ingroup bias, 696 social-responsibility norm,

714

cognitive dissonance theory, 678 scapegoat theory, 696 conflict, 715

conformity, 681 other-race effect, 697 social trap, 715

normative social influence, 682 just-world phenomenon, 697 mirror-image perceptions, 715 informational social influence, 682 aggression, 698 superordinate goals, 717

social facilitation, 687 frustration-aggression GRIT, 719

principle, 700

social loafing, 688 mere exposure effect , 706

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Key Psychologists - Social Psychology

Asch, Solomon (1907-1996)

-widely recognized as one of the pioneers in developing social psychology as an academic discipline -his study of conformity provided a vivid demonstration of how individuals respond to the social pressures

and expectations of others

Festinger, Leon (1919-1989)

-best known for formulating the theory of cognitive dissonance

-cognitive dissonance is the state of psychological tension and anxiety that occurs when an individual’s attitudes and behaviors are inconsistent

-although it is possible to reduce dissonance by changing either one’s behavior or one’s attitude, most people modify their attitudes

Milgram, Stanley (1933-1984)

-known for famous and controversial study on obedience to authority which is one of the largest research programs in the history of social psychology

-demonstrated that ordinary citizens were willing to obey an authority figure who instructed them to administer electric shocks to an innocent “learner”

-also brought into light the proper code of ethics that should be used in psychological research

Zimbardo, Philip (1933- )

-textbook author and developer of PBS-TV series Discovering Psychology -best known for his Stanford Prison Experiment (classic, but controversial)

-illustrated how the process of deindividuation led to the reduction of personal responsibility and the abuse of power

-his findings have been applied to the U.S. military abuses in 2004 at Iraq’s Abu Ghraib Prison

Key Theories & Processes 1. Attribution Theory