C
O
N
TE
N
TS
. 1 GRADING BASICS . 2 IMPORTANCE OF GRADING .3 PRINCIPLES OF GRADING TECHNIQUE . 4 GRADING PLANS . 5 GRADIENT . 6 SPOT ELEVATION . 7 INTERPOLATION .
8 FIELD SURVEY AND PLOTTING CONTOURS .
9 GRADING OF DEFINED AREA .
10 GRADING OF OPEN AREAS .
11 IMPLEMENTATION AND CONSTRUCTION .
12 FINAL GRADING PLAN .
13 CUT ANF FILL .
14 RECOMMENDED GRADINGS
15. EARTHWORK COMPUTATIONS
– Average Depth Method – Average End area Method – The Contour Method
.
16 REMOVAL OF WATER FROM SITE .
17 GRADING AND DRAINAGE .
18 SUBSURFACE SYSTEMS AND STRUCTURES .
19 SURFACE SYSTEMS AND STRUCTURES .
20 GUIDELINES FOR GRADING PLANS .
21 GRADING FOR STREETS AND ROADS .
22 PAVEMENTS AND PAVINGS .
23 FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS
G
R
A
DI
N
G
B
A
SI
C
S
Grading
is the process
of modification of
existing landform
to accommodate new
,
structures parking and circulation and
.
to ensure positive drainage
Consideration must be given to
:
,
,
,
utilities such as water gas power
,
communication services and sewerage for
,
.
disposal of wastewater and storm water
Grading process requires a careful change
of contours so that they support the
.
integration of building with the site
IM
P
O
R
T
A
N
C
E
O
F
G
R
A
DI
N
G
The land nay be graded or adjusted to suit the
,
architectural or engineering requirements or
the architecture may be adopted to meet
variations in the ground level so that the
.
original surface is disturbed the least
Extensive alterations in the landform may lead
,
to unstable conditions resulting in erosion
,
,
landslides floods and a complete destruction
.
of ecosystem
Knowledge of grading technology is useful in
.
site planning process It is needed to make
detailed leveling between building and the
.
landscape on any site
Site planning grading takes care of the
,
adjustment necessary between fixed levels
,
structures and use areas within the
.
boundaries of a site
In many cases the grading scheme is a primary
.
determinant in the total design
•
P
RI
N
CI
PL
E
S
O
F
G
R
A
DI
N
G
TE
C
H
N
O
L
O
G
Y
.
1
The ground surface must be suitable for the
.
intended purpose or use
.
2
The visual result should be pleasing
.
.
3
The result of any grading must have positive
.
drainage
.
4
The grading plans should attempt to keep new
levels as close as possible to the original
.
state of the land
.
5
When ground is reshaped it should be done
positively and at the scale of the
.
machinery
.
6
Top soil must be conserved wherever possible
.
.
7
The quantity of cut should be approximately
.
equal to the quantity of the fill
•
Three principal goals in development
:
of a grading plan are
–
Keep unwanted water from entering a
.
building
–
Keep surface run off from creating
damage to property or people during
periods of heavy rainfall and
.
subsequent runoff
–
To accommodate the structure on site
.
with disturbing the site to minimum
G
R
A
DI
N
G
PL
A
N
S
These are the technical documents and
instruments by which we show and calculate
.
changes to the 3d surface of the land These
.
are a result of the grading process
Contour lines are used to indicate the extent
.
of that change
Existing contours are shown in dashed line and
the new form is shown by solid lines drawn
.
where this varies from the existing form
The process of developing grading plans
:
involves manipulation of three factors
– Gradient G. ( )
– Horizontal distance H. ( )
– Difference in elevation between two points D. ( )
G = /D H
The quantities of Cut and Fill are
.
calculated from these drawings
The drawings must be accurate to deliver
.
exact cost estimates
Landscape architects engineers and
,
,
,
architects who do grading plans as well
as the contractor who does the actual
,
grading should understand a common
.
terminology
•
•
•
G
R
A
DI
E
N
T
Gradient refers to the changing elevation
along the Earth's surface or the rate of
.
the slope
It is expressed in
%
or ratio or degrees
.
– 1% slope = 100 1:
– 10% slope = 10 1: = 6o
Percentage of slope is expressed as the
( ) (
number of meters feet rise in 100 m 100
) ,
ft of horizontal distance typically / .
referred to as rise run
If the slope rises2 m 2 ft in 100 m 100 ft ( ) ( ),
.
it is considered a 2 percent slope The
percentage of slope can be calculated by the : following formula Where D vertical rise mm ft= , ( ) L horizontal distance mm ft= , ( ) G = gradient, %
•
= Elevation of point B 48 347 = mm Elevation of point A 47 463 mm = Vertical difference D 884 mm = Horizontal difference L 35 357 mm : There fore
Proportion of Slope can also be expressed
as a ratio of the horizontal distance to the
, ( : ).
vertical rise such as three to one 3 1 The ratio method is used typically for
: ( %) .
slopes 4 1 25 or steeper
Degree of Slope is expressed in degrees only
-on larges scale earth moving projects such as strip mining and other extractive
. operations •
SP
O
T
EL
E
V
A
TI
O
N
S
Spot elevations provide additional
information beyond that given by the
.
contour lines They indicate Micro
.
grading
Spot elevations are used to establish
,
,
limits of slope to locate contour lines
and to provide detail for establishing
control points that cannot be obtained
.
via contour lines
Typical locations for taking spot
:
elevations are
Top and bottom of steps. Tops of retaining wall.
Outside entrances to buildings. Inside floor levels of buildings. Corners of all structures.
Beak points.
Centers of all swales.
IN
TE
R
P
O
LA
TI
O
N
The elevation of any point on an accurately drawn contour plan may be determined by
. interpolation
In the figure point A lies about 7 10 the, /
; , distance from contour 53 to contour 54 thus
. . A has an approximate elevation of 53 7 •
FI
EL
D
S
U
R
V
EY
&
PL
O
TT
IN
G
C
O
N
T
O
U
R
S
All intersection points of a grid are marked .
on the ground with temporary stakes
The elevations of each intersection point are
taken with a transit or level and the
elevation data is plotted on a gridded plan .
of the site
The elevations of critical high or low points that fall between the intersections are also
. located on the plan
Once all spot elevations have been determined,
[
contours at regular intervals typically 1
, , ( , ,
000 mm 500 mm or 250 mm 5 ft 2 ft or 1
)] ,
ft can be located and plotted on a map as .
shown in Figure ahead
Often this can be done by eye since few, . contour maps require great precision •
• •
G
R
A
DI
N
G
F
O
R
D
EF
IN
E
D
A
R
E
A
Slopes of less than about 2 percent in the
. open landscape appear flat to the human eye
,
However in areas adjacent to built ,
structures even the slightest slope becomes noticeable because of the relationship of
,
the grade to mortar joints roof lines and .
: Perimeter Edge Level
Figures schematically illustrate alternative
methods for manipulating a surface for drainage while allowing at least one peripheral edge to
. remain level
: Two Perimeter Edges Level
Figures schematically illustrate drainage schemes applicable when two perimeter edges need
. to be level
Entire Area Level:
Some circumstances such as rooftop,
,
landscapes or enclosed courtyards require that the entire surface of the enclosed area be
. level
Figure ahead illustrates two ways that an
area can remain level and still drain properly ,
by the use of porous surface material such as /
sand gravel the use of individually elevated Each case requires an adequate system beneath the pavers to carry required rainfall
. effectively
These alternatives are applicable to relatively flat surfaces as tennis courts and other types of
. courts
S
C
H
E
M
A
TI
C
G
R
A
DI
N
G
F
O
R
O
PE
N
A
R
E
A
S
Preparing site grading plan
– Grading of a site should be thoughtful systematic process that begins with an analysis and understanding of the site and ends with an overall detailed
. Grading plan – Site Analysis:
Study the general lay of the land by
. using topographic maps and site visits
1 Determine high points low points. , ,
, .
ridges and valleys
2 Note natural drainage systems and.
directions of flow that exist on the .
site
– Site use concept:
Determine how existing landforms would
,
affect proposed use areas such as building
, , , ,
locations roads parking areas walkways
, .
plazas and lawn areas –
SITE ANALYSIS (EXAMPLE)
( ) SITE USE CONCEPT EXAMPLE
Schematic grading plans:
Define general use areas set building,
,
floor a areas by spot elevations and
diagram drainage flow using slope arrows . pointing along the direction of flow This will help in the following
: procedures
1. Developing a general landform concept . 2 Locating swales and surface water flow. . 3 Locating drainage receptacles. .
4 Calculating water runoff for various.
. areas
5 Defining an area that could be altered,
(raised or lowered with limited impact) .
on drainage or existing trees This area could be used to help balance any
. surplus cut or fill –
Grading by spot elevations
Grade by spot elevations and form
,
preliminary contouring using the following (
steps in the order shown always strive to keep ):
disturbed areas as small as possible
1 Set tentative gradients and spot grades on.
, , .
roads walks and swales Establish critical .
spot elevations
2 Set the building grade circuit i e floor. , . .,
, , , , .
elevation steps walls terraces etc
3 Draw in preliminary contours at 1 500 mm or 30.
( - - ) ,
000 mm 5 or 10 ft intervals depending upon the scale of the project and topographic
.
change Make certain that all gradients and /
slopes are within the maximum minimum criteria
, . ., , ,
for a particular use i e lawn roadway
, .
terrace and cut slope or embankment
4 Complete all contour alterations within the.
. property line or project limits •
( ) GRADE BY SPOT ELEVATIONS EXAMPLE
Preliminary Cut and Fill Calculations- - :
Do preliminary calculations if needed to ( )
determine whether there is a balance between the amount of earth to be cut out and the amount of
. earth needed for fill
Final Grading Plan:
.
1 Prepare final road profiles. .
2 Indicate changes in direction or rate of .
slopes .
3 Show spot elevations for all critical points,
, ,
including manholes inverts drainage
, ,
structures tops and bottoms of all walls
, /
steps and curbs at intersections and or .
other critical points .
4 Draw proposed contours and complete The final grading plan
.
5 Complete an estimate of the amount of cut and , fill based upon the proposed Grading plan
, ,
and if needed adjust the Amount of one or .
IM
PL
E
M
E
N
T
A
TI
O
N
&
C
O
N
ST
R
U
C
TI
O
N
The following steps should be highlighted in the specifications regarding the construction
: process .
1 Collect and submit soil samples for all areas .
to be disturbed .
2 Erect tree protection fencing to encompass all feeder roots within the drip zone of
. existing trees designated to remain .
3 Protect all existing pavements and site .
structures designated to remain .
4 Strip existing sod to a 2 1 2 to 4 inch depth - / - -and either compost or stockpile for future
. use .
5 Strip and stockpile topsoil separately. .
6 Erect temporary erosion control structures to halt the flow of sediments off the property or onto existing paved surfaces and
. structures
.
7 Install gravel aprons at all egress points off the property to lessen the tracking of soil
. and debris onto roadways .
8 Remove any unsuitable soils and debris from .
the site .
9 Prior to filling scarify subgrade to a depth,
;
-of 6 inches and moisture condition to .
obtain the desired compaction .
10 When filling place soil in 8 inch lifts, - .
- ,
Moisture condition each layer of soil and . compact before additional fill is placed .
11 Allow for settlement and shrinkage of soil .
when determining final grade .
12 After final sub grade elevations have been -.
established •
Following conditions must be avoided
-
:
or re evaluated
–
Grading that results in radical loss
/
.
of vegetation and or topsoil
–
Grading that interrupts in natural
.
drainage
–
Grading that results in aesthetic
.
degradation
–
Grading on difficult slopes excess of
(
%)
,
,
25
in floodplains estuaries or
,
bogs or in other environmentally
.
unique conditions
–
Grading in areas susceptible to
,
natural disasters such as mud
slides or along earth quake fault
.
T
H
E
FI
N
AL
G
R
A
DI
N
G
PL
A
N
The essential information that a grading
:
plan includes
.
1 Existing and proposed contours. .
2 Spot elevations at the corners of all
, ,
structures such as buildings walks
, , .
walls parking lots and streets
the corners are referred as reference
,
points and the slopes are uniform between .
unless noted otherwise .
3 Spot elevations at all high points and low .
points .
4 Contours that cross pavements are uniform mechanical lines while contours on the
. surface of ground are drawn freehand .
5 Spot elevations at top and bottom of steps .
and ramps .
6 The elevation of ground before the entrance. .
7 Spot elevations at drainage inlets marked as “rim elevations and the invert” “ ”
elevations
.
6
C
U
T
A
N
D
FI
LL
The process of removal of earth from one
part of site to achieve required grading
and the place and using the dug up earth
to achieve required grading by filling
.
it at another place on the same sit
The amount of material from cuts roughly
matches the amount of fill needed to
,
make nearby embankments so minimizing
.
the amount of construction labor
•
When soil is dug or blasted it looses the
original position and adds to the bulk
,
result in increase of volume this is
.
termed as a swell
When the soil placed in new location with
,
nominal compaction the voids present
there are filled and this is called as
.
shrinkage
Standards for grading around a typical .
Surface drainage can be achieved by
pitching surfaces to natural drainage .
feature and systems
Grading to create berms. Berms can be created
for noise and wind barriers or for additional soil
- ,
depth above unfavorable sub grade conditions such
.
as a high groundwater table
Grading to create level areas.
Relatively flat gradients are needed for
, ,
sports fields outdoor terraces and . sometimes for areas near buildings
Grading to modify existing landforms. Deep
, ,
gullies narrow ridges or steep slopes can be modified to create more useful and attractive
. landforms
Grading for increased site interest.
Grading can help emphasize a site's topography .
or add interest to an otherwise flat site
Grading related to good
. views
Grading to expose
Grading related to bad
. views
Grading to fit structures to
. sites
Grading to facilitate better plant
Grading to emphasize or control
. circulation
RE
CO
MM
EN
ED
GR
AD
IE
NT
S
RE
CO
MM
EN
ED
GR
AD
IE
NT
S
Schematic grading for outdoor basketball court
Schematic grading for outdoor tennis court
/ /
Schematic Grading of football Soccer hockey field
E
A
R
T
H
W
O
R
K
C
O
M
P
U
T
A
TI
O
N
S
Earth work computations require measuring
irregularly shaped areas on plans and
.
sections The quickest way to do this
manually is to use an instrument called
.
compensating polar Planimeter
There are three methods used to estimate
:
earthwork volumes
.
1 The average depth method, .
2 Average end area method and, .
3 The contour method.
A
V
E
R
A
G
E
D
EP
T
H
M
ET
H
O
D
It is most often employed to estimate .
excavation quantities .
1 A grid is placed over area that is to have the earth work quantities
. estimated .
2 The existing elections are estimated from ,
the topographic plan or the original . survey grid may be used if available .
3 The new elevation are recorded for each .
point .
4 The difference in the elevations are . found for each point in the grid .
5 The differences in elevation are then averaged for each corner of the grid
square to find n average depth for .
that grid .
6 This is repeated for each grid. Very accurate Suitable for small areas.
.
A
V
E
R
A
G
E
E
N
D
A
R
E
A
M
ET
H
O
D
It utilizes sections cut through the site at .
regular intervals
The end area of cross section is averaged with, the adjacent section and then multiplied by the distance between the sections to obtain
. the volume Cut and Fill:
– The new profiles after the cut or fill are placed over existing ones and the are to be cut and filled in the
section are calculated and the
multiplied separately with distance between two contours to get the
. volumes
T
H
E
C
O
N
T
O
U
R
M
ET
H
O
D
It uses existing and proposed contour pairs to .
estimated volume
This method is not as accurate as the others. Does not require use of grid or preparation of
. section
The area between existing contour and the .
proposed contour is calculated
This area is multiplied by the value of .
R
E
M
O
V
AL
O
F
W
A
TE
R
F
R
O
M
SI
TE
One of the principle objective of grading
,
plan is to collect transfer and dispose of
.
surface water
There are various methods of removal of water
.
:
from a site
They are as follows
.
1
Surface runoff
–
It is the first and most visible
method of removing water from a
.
site
–
The precipitation that is not
absorbed into the soil accumulates
across the site the site and is
collected in swales or into
.
subsurface storm sewer systems
–
Ultimately all of the runoff in a
watershed is combined into
freshwater tributaries which find
.
R
E
M
O
V
AL
O
F
W
A
TE
R
F
R
O
M
SI
TE
.
1
Subsurface runoff
–
It is the second method of removing
.
water from a site
–
In this method the water is allowed
to percolate through the soil and
become a part of ground water
.
supply or an aquifer
.
2 Evaporation
–
Includes evaporation of water from
,
water bodies plants and other
.
sources of surface water
.
3 Transpiration
–
The fourth method is absorption of
.
water by plants for photosynthesis
The drainage process begins with three
:
primary considerations
– Determine where the water is coming from – Where it needs to go
– How it traverses the site
An analysis of the site its context
relative to the development of a grading
,
:
plan should document as minimum
.
1 The topographical characteristics of the .
site .
2 Any unusual type soil type. .
3 Fixed elevations or points. .
4 Areas to be kept dry and their corresponding .
elevations .
G
R
A
DI
N
G
A
N
D
D
R
AI
N
A
G
E
To avoid problems associated with drainage
the designer must not leave anything to
.
,
chance Though each site is different
,
following the criteria mentioned below
.
some of drainage problems may be solved
–
Ensure that the water flows downhill
,
.
and perpendicular to the contours
–
Combination of natural methods of
removal of water from site must be
identified and combined with the
.
artificial ones
E
ST
IM
A
TI
N
G
R
U
N
O
FF
The most common techniques for estimating :
runoff are
– Soil conservation method – Runoff curve number method – Rational method
– The small storm hydrology WQV method. The SCS Runoff method is more sophisticated
model useful for larger watersheds and larger .
design storms
The rational method is more commonly used for .
small watersheds
Modified rational method:
– This method for calculating runoff rate assumes
-.
1 Rainfall intensity is uniform throughout the duration .
of the storm .
2 Precipitation falls on the entire drainage area for duration of the storm
.
3 Peak discharge of the rainfall is equal to at the time .
of concentration .
4 Time of concentration is atleast six minutes.
R
A
TI
O
N
AL
M
ET
H
O
D
STEP1 choose an appropriate design storm: , ,
delineate the watershed identify outlet and
( ) .
calculate watershed area A in hectares STEP 2 determine app Runoff coefficient C : . ( )
based on land cover characteristics and .
hydrologic soil group In landscapes with
,
several soil types composite value of C is .
used If the design storm return period is
,
greater tan 10 years multiply runoff ( ).
coefficient cf
STEP 3 calculate the time of concentration for :
( ) ,
the watershed Tc in minutes using Kirpich .
formula
STEP 4 Calculate rainfall intensity using : Steel formula
STEP 5 calculate the peak discharge Q using : ( ) :
the formula
– Q KCIA=
S
U
B
S
U
R
F
A
C
E
SY
ST
E
M
S
A
N
D
ST
R
U
C
T
U
R
E
S
Subsurface runoff is collected in area drains,
, .
catch basins and trench drains
The are drain should be located at the lowest
.
point in a drainage area It is conceptually
like a big shower drain through which all of
the water falling in a specified area .
passes
• Trench drain is term that has been given to any linear
,
drain this
structure is often used at bottom of the slope where water needs to be collected to
protect an adjacent .
The catch basin is also a drain but it is
designed to catch debris in its base
below the pipe that transfers the water
.
to a point of disposal When the lid of
,
the catch basin is lifted the debris and
sediment would otherwise have clogged
.
the drainage system can be removed
Subsurface collection is often accomplished
with perforated pipe set in ditches
filled with gravel
Dry wells provide an
underground disposal system :
for surface runoff but their effectiveness is in direct proportion to the porosity of surrounding
,
soils and they are
efficient only for draining .
small areas High rainfall runoff rates cannot be
absorbed at the rather low percolation rates of most
,
soils so the difference is stored temporarily in a dry
.
well Efficiency is reduced during extended periods of wet weather when receiving soils are saturated and the well is refilled before it
. drains completely
S
U
R
F
A
C
E
D
R
AI
N
A
G
E
SY
ST
E
M
S
Surface drainage systems intercept and collect storm water runoff and convey it away from a building and site with the use of large
. inlets and storm drains
Surface and Subsurface systems typically
require discharge either through a pumping station or by gravity drainage to an
. adequate outfall
Surface drainage systems are designed to
collect and dispose of rainfall runoff to
prevent the flow of water from damaging
(
building structures through foundation
), ,
leakage site structures and the surface
( ).
grade through erosion •
The two basic types of surface drainage are:
– The open system and – The closed system.
The open system which utilizes a ditch swale, / ,
and culvert is used in less densely ,
populated more open areas where the flow of
water above grade can be accommodated fairly
. easily
The closed system which utilizes pipes an, ,
/ , ,
inlet catch basin and manholes is used in
, ,
more urban populated areas where land must
be used efficiently and water brought below the surface quickly to avoid interference
.
with human activity The two systems are ,
commonly combined where terrain human
, .
density and land uses dictate
Swales are shallow channels with parabolic
.
cross section They may be very wide at
.
times They are used to divert water
.
around a building They are not used
. / .
where wind flow is more than 1 2 m s
Ditches are also channels with a deeper
.
section They are used wind velocities
.
are higher
A pervious or porous paving system is often
used for parking and other hard site
.
surfaces This drainage system allows water
to percolate through the paved surface into ,
the soil similar to the way the land would .
naturally absorb water •
G
UI
D
EL
IN
E
F
O
R
G
R
A
DI
N
G
PL
A
N
S
.
1
New runoff must never be purposefully
diverted from its natural course on one
property so as to become a nuisance to
.
other property
.
2
Always consider some method to retard the
velocity of the water so that it might
.
be absorbed into the soil
.
3
Design the grading and drainage plan as to
,
respect reinforce and duplicate the
.
existing natural systems
.
4
While on occasions there are few
,
alternative a drainage plan with more
than one outlet course is considered
.
good planning
.
.
5
Avoid draining large paved area across
.
pedestrian paths Catch basins and trench
drains can be used to collect the
substantial quantities of runoff created by
.
.
parking lots Or pedestrian plazas
.
6
Identify any areas that appear to be
.
,
appropriate for drainage structures Sinks
,
depressions or long channels are always
primary candidates for a catch basin or
.
drains
.
7
In the design subsurface systems begin at
,
higher elevation of the site and work their
.
way towards the lower elevations
Surface drainage systems are generally preferred
:
to underground systems for two reasons
– Cost – Ecology
•
•
Avoid the following while providing
:
drainage to site
–
System that necessitates the location
of drainage line that ruptures a
.
foundation or passes under a slab
–
Avoid cutting a hole in a ground beam
.
for a pipe
G
R
A
DI
N
G
F
O
R
ST
R
E
ET
S
A
N
D
R
O
A
D
S
The road has a constant slope and thus
.
presents more problem
The function of the road is to serve as an
path for vehicles and as an adjunct to
.
the drainage system
A road must be designed
:
–
in conformance to strict design
,
standards maintaining appropriate
,
grades curvatures and sight
.
distances
–
To minimize fluctuations across
.
variable terrain
–
To have a constant slope or gradient
.
–
To provide shortest route possible
.
–
To minimize cut and fill
.
–
As far as possible parallel to the
.
contour lines
–
P
A
V
E
M
E
N
TS
Pavement: Pavements are classified as being either
flexible or rigid and as either monolithic or
. , - .
unit Additionally they are porous or non porous
The pavement material receives traffic wear and .
transfers loads to the base and sub grade They may be classified in three ways:
– Material Soft cover Hard cover – Construction Flexible pavement Rigid pavement – Porosity Porous Non porous – Structure Unit monolithic •
Flexible Pavements:
– Flexible monolithic pavements consist of
. ,
aggregates shredded rubber or polymers which are mixed with an asphalt or
proprietary binder and placed on a
prepared base to create a seamless .
monolithic surface
– These pavements may be porous or non.
, ,
porous and firm or resilient depending .
on aggregate and binder composition – Asphalt and resilient athletic surfacing
-are common examples and -are typically 40
( / - ) , 100 mm 1 1 2 4 In thick
– Flexible unit pavements typically consist
- , ,
of dry laid sand swept butt jointed
. , .
concrete brick stone or synthetic
paving units placed on a sand setting bed
.
and d prepared aggregate base
– These pavement by virtue of their butt -joint construction are porous to semi
. porous
Rigid Pavements:
– Rigid pavements i e reinforced cone are ( . . structurally different than flexible pavements, Pavement loads are
distributed internally within the Rigid
-pavement and transferred to the sub
,
grade over a broad area in a manner
similar to that found in a concrete .
spread footing
– Rigid monolithic pavements are typically -
-constructed as cast in place reinforced concrete slabs Rigid unit pavements.
require paver to be mortared or glued to .
a reinforced concrete base
F
R
E
Q
U
E
N
TL
Y
A
S
K
E
D
Q
U
E
ST
IO
N
S
. 1 LAWS OF CONTOUR .2 METHOD OF CALCULATING CUT AND FILL VOLUMES .
3 CONSIDERATIONS OF WORKING ON A SLOPING SITE .
4 SLOPES FOR OUTDOOR FUNCTIONAL ACTIVITIES . 5 IMPORTANCE OF GRADING . 6 STEPS OF GRADING . 7 KINDS OF PAVINGS .
8 CONSTRUCTION DETAILS OF PAVINGS .
9 INTERPOLATION
BI
BL
IO
G
R
A
P
H
Y
.1 Time saver standards : landscape architecture .
2 Landscape architecture graphic standards .
3 Landscape architecture construction :
Harlowe C Landphair .
.