6. What are learning styles and strategies and how do they
6. What are learning styles and strategies and how do they affect second languageaffect second language learning?
learning?
Brown (1994) defines
Brown (1994) defines stylesstylesas “rather enduring tendencies or preferences within anas “rather enduring tendencies or preferences within an individual”. He also explains, “
individual”. He also explains, “StrategiesStrategies are specific methods of approaching aare specific methods of approaching a problem or task, modes of operation for achieving a particular end, planned designs problem or task, modes of operation for achieving a particular end, planned designs for controlling and manipulating
for controlling and manipulating certain information.”certain information.”
(1) LEARNING STYLES (1) LEARNING STYLES
The way people learn things and solve the problems that they face while their The way people learn things and solve the problems that they face while their learning is different from one another. It depends on their cognitive style, which is a learning is different from one another. It depends on their cognitive style, which is a rather amorphous link between their personality and cognition. When the cognitive rather amorphous link between their personality and cognition. When the cognitive style is related to an educational context, we call it
style is related to an educational context, we call it learning styleslearning styles. People get their. People get their ow
own n leleararnining ng ststylyle e whwhilile e ththey ey ininteternrnalalizize e ththeieir r tototatal l enenviviroronmnmenent, t, anand d ththee int
interernalnaliziizing ng prproceocess ss is is affaffectected ed by by phyphysicsical, al, affaffectectiveive, , and and cogcognitnitive ive facfactortors.s. According to Keef (1979),
According to Keef (1979), learning styleslearning styles are “cognitive, affective, and physiologicalare “cognitive, affective, and physiological traits that are relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with, traits that are relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with, and respond to the learning environment.” Skehan (1991) more simply says that and respond to the learning environment.” Skehan (1991) more simply says that learn
learning ing stylstylee is is “a “a generageneral l predpredisposispositionition, , volunvoluntary or tary or not, not, towatoward rd proprocesscessinging infor
informatimation on in in a a particparticular ular wayway.” .” (Sk(Skehan 1991) ehan 1991) TherThere e areare some dimensiosome dimensions ns of of learning style
learning style::
1) Field Independence 1) Field Independence
Field-independent
Field-independent lealearnirning ng stystyle le memeans ans the the tetendenndency cy to to perperceiceive ve a a parparticticulaular,r, proper item or factor
proper item or factor in a “field” of confusing in a “field” of confusing items. Fieitems. Field-independent style enablesld-independent style enables the
the lealearnrner er to to disdistintinguiguish sh parparts ts frfrom om a a whowhole, le, to to conconcencentratrate te on on sosometmethinhing, g, toto analy
analyze ze separaseparate te variavariables bles withowithout ut confuconfusion sion with with other neighboring other neighboring variavariables.bles. However, too much field independence makes the learner only see the parts
However, too much field independence makes the learner only see the parts and failand fail to see the whole picture. On the other hand,
to see the whole picture. On the other hand, field-dependent field-dependent learning style is thelearning style is the tendency to be dependent on the field. In this case, the learner gets the clear tendency to be dependent on the field. In this case, the learner gets the clear picture of the whole field but has difficulty in perceiving the parts in the field.
picture of the whole field but has difficulty in perceiving the parts in the field.
In reference to second language learning, field independence is related to
In reference to second language learning, field independence is related to classroomclassroom learning such as analyzing, focusing on
learning such as analyzing, focusing on details, mastering of exercisedetails, mastering of exercises and drills. s and drills. OnOn the other hand, field
of second language. According to Abraham (1985), second language learners who of second language. According to Abraham (1985), second language learners who are field independent perform better in deductive lessons, while those who are field are field independent perform better in deductive lessons, while those who are field depend
dependent ent perfoperform better rm better in in inductinductive ive lesslessons. Since ons. Since the the two differentwo different t learlearningning styles are needed for different kinds of language learning – classroom activities and styles are needed for different kinds of language learning – classroom activities and nat
naturaural, l, facface-te-to-fo-face ace comcommunmunicaicatiotion n -, -, botboth h lealearnrning ing stystyles les arare e impimportortant ant forfor language learning.
language learning.
2) Left- and Right-Brain Functioning 2) Left- and Right-Brain Functioning
As a child’s brain matures, his or her brain is laternalized into a left and a right As a child’s brain matures, his or her brain is laternalized into a left and a right hemisphere and the brain functions are also laternalized into the two hemispheres. hemisphere and the brain functions are also laternalized into the two hemispheres. The
The left hemisphereleft hemisphere is related to logical, analytical thought, with mathematical andis related to logical, analytical thought, with mathematical and linear processing of information. On the other hand,
linear processing of information. On the other hand, the right hemispherethe right hemisphere perceivesperceives and
and rerememembembers rs visvisualual, , tactactiltile, e, and and audauditoitory ry imaimagesges. . It’It’s s rerelatlated ed to to prproceocessssinging holistic, integrative, and emotional information. The two hemispheres work together holistic, integrative, and emotional information. The two hemispheres work together as a team to solve problems, and the best solutions to the problems are those as a team to solve problems, and the best solutions to the problems are those optimalized by the
optimalized by the two different hemispheres.two different hemispheres.
In reference to second language learning, Krashen, Seliger, and Hartnett (1974) say In reference to second language learning, Krashen, Seliger, and Hartnett (1974) say that
that left-brain-dominant learnersleft-brain-dominant learners of second language prefer a deductive style of of second language prefer a deductive style of teach
teaching ing whilwhilee right-brain-dominant learnersright-brain-dominant learners arare e momore re sucsuccescessfusful l in in indinductuctiveive classroom activities. Stevick (1982) say that left-brian-dominent second language classroom activities. Stevick (1982) say that left-brian-dominent second language le
leararneners rs arare e bebetttter er at at prprododucucining g sesepapararate te wowordrds, s, gagaththererining g ththe e spspececifificics s of of language, dealing with abstractions, classification, labeling, reorganizations, etc. He language, dealing with abstractions, classification, labeling, reorganizations, etc. He also explains that
also explains that right-right-brain-brain-domindominant ant learlearners ners are better are better with whole with whole imagimages,es, generalizations, metaphors, and emotional reactions and artistic expressions. This generalizations, metaphors, and emotional reactions and artistic expressions. This learning style seems to be parallel with field
learning style seems to be parallel with field independence-independence.independence-independence.
3) Ambiguity
3) Ambiguity TToleranceolerance
People have different degree of
People have different degree of tolerance of ambiguity tolerance of ambiguity . Some people are relatively. Some people are relatively good at accepting ideologies, events, and facts that contradict their own views. good at accepting ideologies, events, and facts that contradict their own views. Oth
Others ers arare e momore re cloclose-se-minminded ded to to accaccept ept iteitems ms thathat t arare e concontratradicdictortory y to to thetheirir existing system. The person who is tolerant of ambiguity is willing to enjoy lots of existing system. The person who is tolerant of ambiguity is willing to enjoy lots of in
innonovavatitive ve anand d crcreaeatitive ve popossssibibililititieies s anand d is is nonot t didiststururbebed d by by amambibiguguitity y anandd uncertainty.
uncertainty.
In terms of language learning, the learners need to be tolerant of ambiguity while In terms of language learning, the learners need to be tolerant of ambiguity while their learning: for example, the contradiction between their native language and the their learning: for example, the contradiction between their native language and the
second language, some exceptions in the rule of second language, the cultural second language, some exceptions in the rule of second language, the cultural di
diffffererenenceces s bebetwtweeeen n ththeieir r nanatitive ve cucultlturure e anand d ththe e tatargrget et cucultlturure, e, anand d so so onon.. Ac
Accorcording ding to to ChaChapelpelle le and and RRobeobers rs (1(198986),6), leleararneners rs wiwith th a a hihigh gh totolelerarancnce e fofor r ambiguity
ambiguity are slightly more successful in certain language are slightly more successful in certain language tasks. Clearly intolerancetasks. Clearly intolerance can prevent the learners being creative in using the target language because of the can prevent the learners being creative in using the target language because of the worries about ambiguity. However,
worries about ambiguity. However, too much tolerance of ambiguity too much tolerance of ambiguity can also have acan also have a neg
negatiative ve effeffect ect on on thetheir ir lanlanguaguage ge lealearnirning. ng. In In thithis s cascase, e, the the lealearnerners rs cancannotnot effectively make the second language rules integrated with the whole language effectively make the second language rules integrated with the whole language system but they just use meaningless chunks learned by
system but they just use meaningless chunks learned by rote.rote.
4) Reflectivity and Impulsivity 4) Reflectivity and Impulsivity
People have different personality tendencies toward reflectivity. Some people tend People have different personality tendencies toward reflectivity. Some people tend to make a quick, gambling guess at an answer to a problem. Others tend to make a to make a quick, gambling guess at an answer to a problem. Others tend to make a slower, more calculated decision about the same problem. The former cognitive slower, more calculated decision about the same problem. The former cognitive style is called “
style is called “impulsive or intuitiveimpulsive or intuitive” styles, and the latter one is called “” styles, and the latter one is called “reflectivereflective or systematic
or systematic” styles. These personality traits have an effect on second language” styles. These personality traits have an effect on second language learning.
learning.
Impulsive learners
Impulsive learners of second language tend to be quick to answer the questionsof second language tend to be quick to answer the questions provided by the teacher, but their answers are not so much accurate compared to provided by the teacher, but their answers are not so much accurate compared to the reflective learners. On the other hand,
the reflective learners. On the other hand, reflective learnersreflective learners tend to make fewertend to make fewer errors but they react slower than the impulsive learners. For language teachers, errors but they react slower than the impulsive learners. For language teachers, they need to figure out the reflectivity of their students and adjust their teaching to they need to figure out the reflectivity of their students and adjust their teaching to the traits. For example, they must not judge the errors of impulsive students too the traits. For example, they must not judge the errors of impulsive students too harshly, and they need to
harshly, and they need to be more patient to reflective learners in their class.be more patient to reflective learners in their class.
5) Visual and Auditory Styles 5) Visual and Auditory Styles
People have different preferences for the type of input: either visual or auditory People have different preferences for the type of input: either visual or auditory input.
input. PeoPeople ple who like who like visvisual ual inpinput ut tend to prefer reading and studying charts,tend to prefer reading and studying charts, drawings and other graphic information. On the other hand,
drawings and other graphic information. On the other hand, those who like auditory those who like auditory input
input tend to have preference for listening to lectures and audiotapes. According totend to have preference for listening to lectures and audiotapes. According to Joy Reid (1987), Kor
Joy Reid (1987), Korean students are significantly more visually ean students are significantly more visually oriented than nativeoriented than native English-speaking Americans.
English-speaking Americans.
(2) LEARNING
(2) LEARNING STRASTRATEGIESTEGIES
Cook (2001) claims that
learning or using the second language that affects learning. People who are good at learning or using the second language that affects learning. People who are good at languages might tackle L2 learning in different ways from those who are less good languages might tackle L2 learning in different ways from those who are less good or they might behave in the same way but more efficiently. Naiman et al. (1995) or they might behave in the same way but more efficiently. Naiman et al. (1995) introduces
introduces six six brobroad ad strstrateategiegies s shashared red by by googood d lanlanguaguage ge lealearnernersrs: : (1(1) ) FFinind d aa learning style that suits you; (2) Involve yourself in the language learning process; learning style that suits you; (2) Involve yourself in the language learning process; (3) Develop an awareness of language both as system and as communication; (4) (3) Develop an awareness of language both as system and as communication; (4) Pa
Pay y constconstant ant attenattention to tion to expaexpanding your nding your langualanguage ge knowknowledgeledge; ; (5) Develop (5) Develop thethe second language as a
second language as a separate system; and (6) Tseparate system; and (6) Take into account the demands ake into account the demands thatthat L2 learning imposes.
L2 learning imposes.
1) T
1) Types of Learnypes of Learning Strategiesing Strategies
O’M
O’Mallalley ey and and ChaChamomot t (1(199990) 0) divdivideidedd learnlearning ing stratstrategieegies s into into threthree e catecategoriegoriess:: metacognitive, cognitive, and socioaffective strategies.
metacognitive, cognitive, and socioaffective strategies. Metacognitive strategy Metacognitive strategy hashas ex
execuecutivtive e funfunctictions ons sucsuch h as as plaplanninning ng for for lealearnirning, ng, thithinkinking ng aboabout ut the the lealearnirningng process, monitoring of one’s production or comprehension, and evaluating learning process, monitoring of one’s production or comprehension, and evaluating learning aft
after er finisfinishing hing a a learlearning ning activactivityity.. Cognitive strategy Cognitive strategy involves conscious ways of involves conscious ways of tackl
tackling ing learlearning, such ning, such as as note-note-takingtaking, , resresourourcing cing (usin(using g dictidictionarionaries es and and otheotherr resources) and elaboration (relating new information to old). Finally,
resources) and elaboration (relating new information to old). Finally, socioaffectivesocioaffective strategy
strategy refers to learning by interacting with others, such as working with fellowrefers to learning by interacting with others, such as working with fellow students or asking the teacher’s help.
students or asking the teacher’s help.
O’M
O’Mallalley ey and and ChaChamomot t (1(199990) 0) conconducducted ted a a stustudy dy on on the the rerelatlation ion betbetweween en usiusingng learning strategies and improving their language ability
learning strategies and improving their language ability . In the study, they taught. In the study, they taught EFL students use the three types of learning strategies in their language learning. EFL students use the three types of learning strategies in their language learning. T
Thehey y trtraiainened d onone e grgrououp p in in cocogngnititivive e ststraratetegigies es anand d ththe e sesecocond nd grgrououp p inin metacognitive strategies, but they didn’t train the third group to use any learning metacognitive strategies, but they didn’t train the third group to use any learning strategies in their language learning. They found that that the metacognitive group strategies in their language learning. They found that that the metacognitive group improved most for speaking and did better some listening tasks than the group who improved most for speaking and did better some listening tasks than the group who were not taught any learning strategies.
were not taught any learning strategies.
2) Communicative Strategies 2) Communicative Strategies
While learning strategies are more receptive domain of intake, memory, storage, While learning strategies are more receptive domain of intake, memory, storage, an
and d rerecacallll, , cocommmmununicicatativive e ststraratetegigies es arare e momore re rerelalateted d wiwith th ththe e prprododucuctitiveve co
commmmununicicatatioion n of of ininfoformrmatatioion. n. FFaeaerrch ch anand d KKasaspeper r (1(198983a3a:3:36) 6) sasay y ththatat communicative strategies are potentially conscious plans for solving the problems communicative strategies are potentially conscious plans for solving the problems tha
that t the the lealearnerners rs facface e in in thetheir ir rereal al cocommmmuniunicatcationion. . The The detdetailailed ed strstrateategiegies s araree avoidance
Second language learners avoid a certain lexical item when they don’t know the Second language learners avoid a certain lexical item when they don’t know the word. Phonological
word. Phonological avoidanceavoidance or topic avoidance also can be found in their secondor topic avoidance also can be found in their second language use. The learners have some
language use. The learners have some prefabricated patterns prefabricated patterns that they use in athat they use in a certain situation like “Tourist survival English,” which is not internalized in their certain situation like “Tourist survival English,” which is not internalized in their target language system but just memorized. The learners also
target language system but just memorized. The learners also appeal to authority appeal to authority when they face some problems while they use the target language. They directly when they face some problems while they use the target language. They directly ask a native speaker about the problem. Or they sometimes
ask a native speaker about the problem. Or they sometimes switch the languageswitch the language that they speak. In other words, they use
that they speak. In other words, they use their native language instead of the targettheir native language instead of the target language when they don’t know what to
language when they don’t know what to say in the target language.say in the target language.
Classification of Communication Strategies Classification of Communication Strategies
(T
(Tarone arone 1981:286)1981:286)
S
Sttrraatteeggyy DDeessccrriippttiioonn P
Pararapaphrahrasese ApApprprooximximatatioionn Use of a single target language vocabulary item orUse of a single target language vocabulary item or structure, which the learner knows is not correct, structure, which the learner knows is not correct, bu
but t whwhich ich shshareares s enenougough h semsemantantic ic feafeaturtures es inin co
commmmon on wiwith th ththe e dedesisirered d ititem em to to sasatitisfsfy y ththee speaker.
speaker.
Word Coinage
Word Coinage T The he leleararnener r mamakkes es up up a a nenew w woword rd in in orordeder r toto communicate a desired concept.
communicate a desired concept.
Circumlocution
Circumlocution T The he leleararnener r dedescscriribebes s ththe e chchararacacteteririststicics s oror elements of the object or action instead of using elements of the object or action instead of using the appropriate target language item or structure. the appropriate target language item or structure.
Bo
Borrrrowowiningg LiLiteteraral l TTraransnslalatitionon The The lealearnrner er tratranslnslateates s woword rd for for worwords ds frfrom om thethe native language.
native language.
Language Switch
Language Switch The learner uses the native language term without The learner uses the native language term without bothering to translate.
bothering to translate.
Appeal for Assistance
Appeal for Assistance The learner asks for the correct term. The learner asks for the correct term.
Mime
Mime The learner uses nonverbal strategies in place of a The learner uses nonverbal strategies in place of a lexical item or action.
lexical item or action.
A
Avovoididanancece TTopopic ic AAvovoididanancece The learner simply tries not to talk about concepts The learner simply tries not to talk about concepts for which the TL item or
for which the TL item or structure is not known.structure is not known.
Message Message
Abandonment Abandonment
The learner begins to talk about a concept but is The learner begins to talk about a concept but is
unable to continue and stops
Second Language Communication Strategies Second Language Communication Strategies
(Chesterfie
(Chesterfield ld and Chesterfield and Chesterfield 1985:49-50)1985:49-50)
S
Sttrraatteeggyy DDeessccrriippttiioonn Repetition
Repetition Echo/ imitation of a Echo/ imitation of a word modeled by another, or incorporation of word modeled by another, or incorporation of a word or structure used previously into an utterance.
a word or structure used previously into an utterance.
Memorization
Memorization Recall by rote of songs, rhymes, or sequences of numbers orRecall by rote of songs, rhymes, or sequences of numbers or related concepts.
related concepts.
Formulaic Expression
Formulaic Expression WWorords ds or or phphrasrases es whwhich ich funfunctiction on as as ununanaanalyzlyzed ed autautomaomatictic spe
speech ech uniunits ts for for the the spspeakeaker, er, oftoften en seservirving ng the the fufunctnction ion of of initiating or continuing a conversation and giving the impression initiating or continuing a conversation and giving the impression of command of the target language.
of command of the target language.
Verbal Attention Getter
Verbal Attention Getter Any Any memeans ans by by whwhich ich the the spespeakaker er attattracracts ts ththe e attattenentiotion n of of another to him/herself so as to
another to him/herself so as to initiate interaction.initiate interaction.
Answer in Union
Answer in Union Response by providing the answer aloud together with others.Response by providing the answer aloud together with others.
Talk to Self
Talk to Self PrPractactice ice in in tartargeget t lanlanguguage age by by enengaggaging ing in in ververbal bal bebehavhaviorior directed to him/herself.
directed to him/herself.
Elaboration
Elaboration ProvidinProviding information beyond that g information beyond that which is necessary to which is necessary to carry oncarry on the interaction.
the interaction.
Anticipatory Answer
Anticipatory Answer Guessing from context to provide a response for an anticipatedGuessing from context to provide a response for an anticipated question, or prematurely fill in a word or phrase in another’s question, or prematurely fill in a word or phrase in another’s statement.
statement.
Monitoring
Monitoring RRececogogninitition on anand d veverbrbal al cocorrrrecectition on of of onone’e’s s owown n ererroror r inin vocabulary, style, grammar, etc.
vocabulary, style, grammar, etc.
Appeal for Assistance
Appeal for Assistance Spontaneously asking another for the correct term or structure,Spontaneously asking another for the correct term or structure, or for help in
or for help in solving a problem.solving a problem.
Request for Clarification
Request for Clarification Attempt to broaden understanding or knowledge of the targetAttempt to broaden understanding or knowledge of the target language by asking the speaker to explain or repeat a previous language by asking the speaker to explain or repeat a previous statement.
statement.
References References
Brown, H. D. (1994). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. Prentice Hall. Brown, H. D. (1994). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. Prentice Hall. Cook, V. (2001). Second Language Learning and Language Teaching. Arnold. Cook, V. (2001). Second Language Learning and Language Teaching. Arnold.
7.
7. WhWhat at rorole le dodoes es ththe e nonotition on of of atattetentntioion/n/nonotiticicing ng plplay ay on on sesecocond nd lalangnguauagege acquisition?
acquisition?
Schmidt (1990a) defines
Schmidt (1990a) defines noticingnoticing in comparison within comparison with understandingunderstanding. He says that. He says that noticing
noticing rereferfers s to to reregisgistertering ing the the sisimplmple e ococcurcurrenrence ce of of somsome e eveevent, nt, whewherereasas understanding
understanding impimplielies s rerecogcognitnition ion of of a a gengeneraeral l prinprincipciple, le, rulrule, e, or or patpattertern. n. FoForr example, a second language learner might simply
example, a second language learner might simply noticenotice that a native speaker usedthat a native speaker used a particular form of address on a particular occasion, or at
a particular form of address on a particular occasion, or at a deeper level the learnera deeper level the learner might
might understand understand the significance of such as form, realizing that the form used wasthe significance of such as form, realizing that the form used was appropriate because of status differences between speaker and hearer.
appropriate because of status differences between speaker and hearer. NoticingNoticing isis crucially related to the question of what linguistic material is stored in memory, crucially related to the question of what linguistic material is stored in memory, while
while understandingunderstanding relates to questions concerning how the material is organizedrelates to questions concerning how the material is organized into a linguistic system.
into a linguistic system.
Ac
Accorcording ding to to SchSchmidmidt t and and FFrorota ta (1(198986),6), noticingnoticing is is of of consconsideraiderable ble theortheoreticeticalal importance because it accounts for which features in the input are attended to and importance because it accounts for which features in the input are attended to and so become intake. They suggest that for noticed input to become intake, learners so become intake. They suggest that for noticed input to become intake, learners have to carry out a comparison of what they have observed in the input and what have to carry out a comparison of what they have observed in the input and what they themselves are typically producing on the basis of their current interlanguage they themselves are typically producing on the basis of their current interlanguage system. They refer to this as ‘noticing the gap.’ Schmidt (1990a, 1993, 1994) says system. They refer to this as ‘noticing the gap.’ Schmidt (1990a, 1993, 1994) says that learners’ focus of attention and noticing of mismatches between the input and that learners’ focus of attention and noticing of mismatches between the input and th
theieir r ououtptput ut dedetetermrminines es whwhetetheher r or or nonot t ththey ey prprogrogresess, s, anand d ththat at nonotiticicing ng oror conscious perception is necessary and sufficient for converting input into intake, at conscious perception is necessary and sufficient for converting input into intake, at least for low-level grammatical items such as plural or third-person singular
least for low-level grammatical items such as plural or third-person singular ss ..
Schmidt (1990a, 1990b) insists that forms that are not noticed in the first, lower Schmidt (1990a, 1990b) insists that forms that are not noticed in the first, lower level sense (i.e., not consciously perceived), do not contribute to learning. In his level sense (i.e., not consciously perceived), do not contribute to learning. In his perspective, there is not such thing as
perspective, there is not such thing as subliminalsubliminal language learning. He acceptslanguage learning. He accepts that
that implicit implicit langulanguage learning probably occurs age learning probably occurs (i.e(i.e., ., learlearning by ning by noticnoticing ing formformss without understanding the rule or principle involved), but thinks that understanding without understanding the rule or principle involved), but thinks that understanding th
thosose e ruruleles s is is hihighlghly y fafacicililitatatitive ve in in cacaseses s whwherere e ststraraighightftfororwaward rd onones es cacan n bebe formulated. On this account, failure to learn is due either to insufficient exposure or formulated. On this account, failure to learn is due either to insufficient exposure or to failure to notice the items in question, even if exposure occurred and the learner to failure to notice the items in question, even if exposure occurred and the learner was attending. For example, a learner could attend carefully to a lecture in an L2 was attending. For example, a learner could attend carefully to a lecture in an L2 and still fail to notice a particular linguistic item in it.
and still fail to notice a particular linguistic item in it.
This is the opposite position to that taken by Krashen (1985, 1989), VanPatten This is the opposite position to that taken by Krashen (1985, 1989), VanPatten (1988), and others, who have denied there is any evidence of beneficial effects of a (1988), and others, who have denied there is any evidence of beneficial effects of a
foc
focus us on on forform, m, at at lealeast st in in the early stagethe early stages s of of lanlanguaguage ge lealearnirning. ng. KraKrasheshen n hashas claimed that adults can best learn an L2 like children learn an L1,
claimed that adults can best learn an L2 like children learn an L1, subconsciously subconsciously and
and implicitly implicitly , while attending to meaning, not form. In his perspective, attention to, while attending to meaning, not form. In his perspective, attention to linguistic forms is supposedly neither necessary nor beneficial.
linguistic forms is supposedly neither necessary nor beneficial.
The relationship between explicit and implicit knowledge continues to be a
The relationship between explicit and implicit knowledge continues to be a key issuekey issue in second language teaching. However, one possibility related to attention/noticing in second language teaching. However, one possibility related to attention/noticing pla
play y in in secsecond ond lanlanguaguage ge acqacquisuisitiition on is is thathat t exexpliplicit cit knoknowlewledge dge funfunctictions ons as as aa fac
faciliilitattator, or, helhelping ping lealearnerners rs to to notnotice ice fefeatuatureres s in in the the inpinput ut whiwhich ch thethey y wowoulduld oth
otherwerwise ise mismiss s and and alsalso o to to comcomparpare e whawhat t thethey y notnotice ice wiwith th whawhat t thethey y proproducducee (Sc
(Schmihmidt dt and and FFrorota, ta, 191986; 86; EllEllis, is, 191993a93a). ). In In a a sensense, se, exexpliplicit cit knoknowlewledge dge mamayy contribute to ‘intake enhancement,’ but it will only be one of several factors that do contribute to ‘intake enhancement,’ but it will only be one of several factors that do this.
this.
References References Long
Long, , M. H. M. H. (19(1996).96).The LinguistiThe Linguistic c EnvirEnvironmeonment. In nt. In RitchRitchie, Wie, W. . C. C. & & BhatiBhatia, a, TT. . K.K. (Eds.), Handbook of Second Language Acquisition
(Eds.), Handbook of Second Language Acquisition (pp. 571-604). Academic Press.(pp. 571-604). Academic Press. Ellis, R. (1994). The Study
8. What
8. What are the are the diffedifferencrences between competees between competence and nce and perfoperformarmance and nce and how arehow are they related?
they related?
According to Brown (1994),
According to Brown (1994), competencecompetence refers to one’s underlying knowledge of arefers to one’s underlying knowledge of a system, event, or fact, while
system, event, or fact, while performance performance is the overtly observable and concreteis the overtly observable and concrete mani
manifestafestation or tion or rearealizatilization on of of compcompetencetence. e. In In otheother r worwords,ds, competencecompetence is is ththee nonobservable ability to do something, while
nonobservable ability to do something, while performance performance is the actual doing of is the actual doing of so
somemeththing ing susuch ch as as wawalklkining, g, sisingnginging, , dadancncining, g, anand d spspeaeakiking. ng. In In rerefefererencnce e toto language acquisition,
language acquisition, competencecompetence is the underlying knowledge of the languageis the underlying knowledge of the language system such as vocabulary, grammar, and structure, while
system such as vocabulary, grammar, and structure, while performance performance is the realis the real prod
productiouction n or or comcomprehprehensioension n of of the the langulanguage: speaking, writing, listeningage: speaking, writing, listening, , andand reading.
reading.
The distinction between competence and performance is first drawn in
The distinction between competence and performance is first drawn in ChomskyChomsky
(1965)
(1965), , whwho o dedefifinenes s ththatat competencecompetence the the spespeakaker/ er/ heahearerer’s r’s knoknowlewledge dge of of hishis langua
language ge andand performance performance is is the the actactual ual use of use of lanlanguaguage ge in in conconcrcrete ete sitsituatuationion.. (Chomsky, 1965) Since it was first proposed, this distinction has been the subject of (Chomsky, 1965) Since it was first proposed, this distinction has been the subject of controversy between those who see it as a
controversy between those who see it as a necessary idealization for linguisticsnecessary idealization for linguistics andand those who believe it
those who believe it abandons the central data of linguisticsabandons the central data of linguistics..
Chomsky (1965)
Chomsky (1965) regardsregards competencecompetence as anas an ““idealized” speaker-hearer idealized” speaker-hearer who doeswho does not display such performance variables as memory limitations, distractions, shifts of not display such performance variables as memory limitations, distractions, shifts of atten
attention and tion and interinterest, errors, and est, errors, and hesithesitation phenomenation phenomena a such as such as reprepeats, falseeats, false starts, pauses, omissions, and additions. His point is that a theory of language has starts, pauses, omissions, and additions. His point is that a theory of language has to be a theory of competence lest the linguist vainly try to categorize an infinite to be a theory of competence lest the linguist vainly try to categorize an infinite num
number ber of of perperforformamance nce varvariabiablesles, , whiwhich ch arare e not not rerefleflectictive ve of of the the undeunderlyrlyinging ling
linguisuistic tic abiabilitlity y of of the the spespeakakerer-he-heararerer. . In In his his poipoint nt of of vieview, w, comcompetpetencence e is is notnot learned through or affected by
learned through or affected by performance and is, therefore, not worthy of performance and is, therefore, not worthy of studystudy..
According to Chomsky (1980a),
According to Chomsky (1980a), linguistic competencelinguistic competence is the cognitive state thatis the cognitive state that encompasses all those aspects of form and meaning and their relation, which are encompasses all those aspects of form and meaning and their relation, which are pro
properperly ly assassigneigned d to to the the spespecifcific ic subsubsyssystem tem of of the the humhuman an minmind d thathat t rerelatlateses representations of form and meaning. For example, it is part of the competence of representations of form and meaning. For example, it is part of the competence of all speakers of English that
all speakers of English that rules must be structure-dependent rules must be structure-dependent , that, that heads comeheads come first in phrases
first in phrases, and that, and that the Verb “faint” cannot have an object the Verb “faint” cannot have an object . Chomsky’s notion. Chomsky’s notion of competence has sometimes been attacked for failing to deal with how language of competence has sometimes been attacked for failing to deal with how language is
is useused d in in a a sosocieciety, and ty, and the concethe concept pt of of comcommumunicnicatiative ve comcompetpetencence e has beenhas been proposed to remedy this lack.
Hymes (1967)
Hymes (1967) was the first researcher to attack Chomsky’s artificial separation of was the first researcher to attack Chomsky’s artificial separation of competence and performance. Hymes expands the notion of
competence and performance. Hymes expands the notion of competence to includecompetence to include different kinds of competence and primarily by adding competences that related to different kinds of competence and primarily by adding competences that related to wh
what at ChChomomsksky y cacalllls s peperfrforormamancnce. e. HyHymemes s didiststininguguisishehed d bebetwtweeeenn linguisticlinguistic competence
competence andand communicative competencecommunicative competence to highlight the difference betweento highlight the difference between kno
knowlewledge dge “ab“aboutout” ” lanlanguaguage ge forforms ms and and knoknowlwledge edge thathat t enaenablebles s a a perperson son toto communicate functionally and interactively. According to Hymes,
communicate functionally and interactively. According to Hymes, communicativecommunicative competence
competence is is thathat t aspaspect of ect of our compour competeetence that nce that enaenablebles s us us to to conconvey andvey and int
interperpreret t memessassages ges and and to to negnegotiotiate ate memeanianings ngs intinterperpersersonaonally lly witwithin hin spespecifcificic con
contetextsxts. . In In othother er wowordsrds, , it it incincludludes es botboth h linlinguiguististic c and and prapragmagmatic tic knoknowlwledgeedge.. Communicative performance
Communicative performance coconsnsisists ts of of ththe e acactutual al ususe e of of ththesese e twtwo o tytypepes s of of knowledge in understanding and producing discourse.
knowledge in understanding and producing discourse.
Canale and Swain (1980)
Canale and Swain (1980) adapt Hymes’ model of adapt Hymes’ model of communicative competencecommunicative competence. They. They say that there are
say that there are four different components or subcategoriesfour different components or subcategories, which make up the, which make up the construct of
construct of communicative competence.communicative competence. Grammatical competenceGrammatical competence is knowledge of is knowledge of lexical items and of
lexical items and of rules of morphology, syntax, rules of morphology, syntax, sentence-grammasentence-grammar semantics, andr semantics, and phono
phonologylogy. . This This is is sentsentence-ence-level level gramgrammarmar.. Sociolinguistic competenceSociolinguistic competence is is ththee kno
knowlewledge dge of of the the sosociocioculculturtural al undeunderstrstandanding ing of of the the sosociacial l concontetext xt in in whiwhichch language is used: the roles of the participants, the information they share, and the language is used: the roles of the participants, the information they share, and the fun
functiction on of of the the intinteraeractiction.on. StrateStrategic gic compcompetenetencece is is the verbathe verbal l and nonverand nonverbalbal com
communmunicaicatiotion n strstrateategiegies s thathat t may may be be calcalled led intinto o actaction ion to to comcompenpensatsate e forfor breakdowns in communication due to performance variables or due to insufficient breakdowns in communication due to performance variables or due to insufficient competence.
competence. Discourse competenceDiscourse competence is the ability we have to connect sentences inis the ability we have to connect sentences in stretches of discourse and to form a meaningful whole out of a series of utterances. stretches of discourse and to form a meaningful whole out of a series of utterances. This is concerned with
This is concerned with intersentencial relationships.intersentencial relationships.
Bachman
Bachman’s’s (1990)(1990) model of communicative language ability is very similar to thatmodel of communicative language ability is very similar to that of
of CaCananale le anand d SwSwaiain, n, wiwith th ththe e adaddiditition on of of an an imimpoportrtanant t elelememenent, t, ststraratetegigicc competence, but with clearer interaction between the competences. He splits the competence, but with clearer interaction between the competences. He splits the four competences into two major groups, thus implying that things within those two four competences into two major groups, thus implying that things within those two groups will interact more closely. So, he has
groups will interact more closely. So, he has organizational competenceorganizational competence composedcomposed of
of grammatical competencegrammatical competence andand textual competencetextual competence (discourse competence) and(discourse competence) and he has
he has pragmatic competence pragmatic competence which is composed of which is composed of sociolinguistic competencesociolinguistic competence andand functional competence
functional competence. . SocSocioliolinguinguististic ic comcompetpetencence e is is virvirtuatually lly the the samsame e as as inin Can
Canale ale and and SwaSwain’in’s s momodeldel, , and and funfunctictionaonal l comcompetpetencence e deadeals ls witwith h how how peopeopleple produce speech acts and the form function mappings, which are required to go produce speech acts and the form function mappings, which are required to go a
The concept of competence and performance is related to second
The concept of competence and performance is related to second language learninglanguage learning more directly than first language learning. Unlike children, adults can make choice more directly than first language learning. Unlike children, adults can make choice bet
betweween en two two altalternernatiative ve forforms ms and and somsometietimemes s thethey y manmanifeifest st an an awawarareneeness ss of of grammaticality in a second language. For children, judgments of grammaticality are grammaticality in a second language. For children, judgments of grammaticality are not meaningful or interesting. In a study conducted by Brown and Bellugi (1964), not meaningful or interesting. In a study conducted by Brown and Bellugi (1964), when asked whether it is better to say “two foots” or “two feet,” children just said when asked whether it is better to say “two foots” or “two feet,” children just said whatever they want to;
whatever they want to; for example, “Pop go weasel.”for example, “Pop go weasel.”
However, language teachers need to remember that adults are not
However, language teachers need to remember that adults are not generally able togenerally able to ve
verbarbalilize ze ““ruruleles” s” anand d papararadigdigms ms coconsnsciciououslsly y eveven en in in ththeieir r nanatitive ve lalangunguagage.e. F
Fururththerermomorere, , in in jujudgidging ng ututteterarancnces es in in ththe e momodedern rn lalangnguauage ge clclasassrsroooom m anandd re
respspononseses s on on vavaririouous s teteststs, s, teteacachehers rs neneed ed to to be be cacaututioioususly ly atattetentntivive e to to ththee di
discscrerepapancncy y bebetwtweeeen n peperfrforormamancnce e on on a a gigiveven n daday y or or in in a a gigiveven n cocontntexext t anandd competence in a second language in general. Therefore, one isolated sample of competence in a second language in general. Therefore, one isolated sample of second language speech may on the surface appear to be rather malformed until second language speech may on the surface appear to be rather malformed until you consider that sample in comparison with the everyday mistakes and errors of you consider that sample in comparison with the everyday mistakes and errors of native speakers.
native speakers.
The main goal of SLA research is to characterize learners’ underlying knowledge of The main goal of SLA research is to characterize learners’ underlying knowledge of
the L2, that is, to describe
the L2, that is, to describe and explain their competence. However, learners’ mentaland explain their competence. However, learners’ mental knowledge is not open to direct inspection. It can only be inferred by examining knowledge is not open to direct inspection. It can only be inferred by examining sam
sampleples s of of thetheir ir perperforformanmance. ce. SLA SLA rereseasearcrcherhers s havhave e useused d difdifferferent ent kinkinds ds of of performance to try to investigate competence: for example, analyzing the actual performance to try to investigate competence: for example, analyzing the actual utterance of learners, tapping learners’ intuition about what is correct by means of utterance of learners, tapping learners’ intuition about what is correct by means of judgment task, etc.
judgment task, etc.
Reference Reference
Brown, H. D. (1994). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. Prentice Hall. Brown, H. D. (1994). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. Prentice Hall. Cook, V. J. & Newson, M. (1996). Chomsky’s Universal Grammar. Blackwell
Cook, V. J. & Newson, M. (1996). Chomsky’s Universal Grammar. Blackwell Publishers.
9. How do socio-cultural factors affect second language learning? 9. How do socio-cultural factors affect second language learning?
Culture is a deeply ingrained part of the very fiber of our being, but language is the Culture is a deeply ingrained part of the very fiber of our being, but language is the mo
most st visvisiblible e and and avaavailailable ble exexprpressession ion of of thathat t culculturture. e. ThuThus, s, secsecond ond lanlanguaguagege learning means often second culture learning. Brown (1994) defines
learning means often second culture learning. Brown (1994) defines cultureculture as “theas “the ideas, customs, skills, arts, and tools that characterize a given group of people in a ideas, customs, skills, arts, and tools that characterize a given group of people in a given period of time.” Since culture establishes a context of cognitive and affective given period of time.” Since culture establishes a context of cognitive and affective behavior of those who are in the culture, it plays an important role in language behavior of those who are in the culture, it plays an important role in language learning. Brown introduces some
learning. Brown introduces some sociocultural factors in second language learningsociocultural factors in second language learning::
(1) Cultural Stereotypes (1) Cultural Stereotypes
In the bias of our own culture-bound world view, we picture other cultures in an In the bias of our own culture-bound world view, we picture other cultures in an oversimplified manner
oversimplified manner , , lumpilumping ng culturcultural al diffedifferencrences es into into exaexaggeratggerated ed catecategoriegories,s, an
and d ththen en we we viview ew eveverery y pepersrson on in in a a cucultlturure e as as popossssesessising ng cocorrrresespopondndiningg ste
sterereotyotypicpical al tratraitsits. . SchSchooloolchichildrldren en havhave e no no parparticticulaular r concontactact t witwith h the the forforeigneign culture and no particular interest in it, nor do their job prospects depend on it; their culture and no particular interest in it, nor do their job prospects depend on it; their att
attituitudes to des to L2 L2 useusers rs mamay y depdepend end momore re on on the the stesterereotyotypes from pes from thetheir ir culculturaturall situations than on any real contact.
situations than on any real contact.
Cultural stereotypes usually comes from the cultural differences between native Cultural stereotypes usually comes from the cultural differences between native culture and foreign culture. If people recognize and understand differing world view, culture and foreign culture. If people recognize and understand differing world view, they will usually adopt a positive and
they will usually adopt a positive and open-minded attitudeopen-minded attitude toward cross-culturaltoward cross-cultural differences, but if they have a
differences, but if they have a closed-minded attitudeclosed-minded attitude of such differences oftenof such differences often results in the maintenance of a stereotype, that is an oversimplification and blanket results in the maintenance of a stereotype, that is an oversimplification and blanket assumption.
assumption.
In reference to second language learning, false, oversimplified stereotypes of the In reference to second language learning, false, oversimplified stereotypes of the target culture and the language can make the learners have negative attitude of target culture and the language can make the learners have negative attitude of thethe target culture or the language. It can
target culture or the language. It can also result in loss of the learners’ motivation toalso result in loss of the learners’ motivation to learn the target language and the culture, and finally unsuccessful learning of the learn the target language and the culture, and finally unsuccessful learning of the target language. Therefore, both teachers and learners of a second language need target language. Therefore, both teachers and learners of a second language need to
to undunderserstantand d culculturatural l difdifferferencences es betbetweween en thetheir ir natnative ive culculturture e and and the the tartargetget culture so that the learners do not have the negative cultural stereotypes of the culture so that the learners do not have the negative cultural stereotypes of the target culture. They should recognize openly that everyone in the world is not “just target culture. They should recognize openly that everyone in the world is not “just like me.”
like me.”
(2) Attitudes (2) Attitudes
Cul
Culturtural al stesterereotyotypes pes usuusuallally y impimply ly somsome e typtype e of of attitudeattitude towtowarard d the the culculturture e oror language. There are some studies on the relation between learners’ attitude toward language. There are some studies on the relation between learners’ attitude toward the target culture and their second language learning. In the studies of
the target culture and their second language learning. In the studies of Gardner andGardner and
Lambert (1972)
Lambert (1972), they say that those who have, they say that those who have positive attitude positive attitude toward the targettoward the target language, such as a desire to understand the target culture and the people and to language, such as a desire to understand the target culture and the people and to emphasize with them, has high motivation to learn the target language.
emphasize with them, has high motivation to learn the target language. John Oller John Oller
and his colleagues (1977)
and his colleagues (1977) conducted several studies of the relationship betweenconducted several studies of the relationship between attitudes and language success. They studied the ESL learners’ attitudes toward attitudes and language success. They studied the ESL learners’ attitudes toward self, the native language group, the target language group, their reason for learning self, the native language group, the target language group, their reason for learning English, and their reasons for traveling to the United States. Most of the studies English, and their reasons for traveling to the United States. Most of the studies showed that
showed that positive attitudes positive attitudes toward self, the native language group, and thetoward self, the native language group, and the target language group enhanced proficiency.
target language group enhanced proficiency.
The results of above studies tell us that language teachers need to try to help the The results of above studies tell us that language teachers need to try to help the
lea
learnerners rs to to havhave e pospositiitive ve attattituitudes so des so thathat t the the lealearnerners rs can can lealearn rn the the tartargetget language successfully. They also should know that everyone has both positive and language successfully. They also should know that everyone has both positive and negative attitude and that negative attitude caused by false stereotyping can be negative attitude and that negative attitude caused by false stereotyping can be often changed by exposure to reality. Therefore, the teachers need to help their often changed by exposure to reality. Therefore, the teachers need to help their students to be exposed to the reality of the target culture through the language students to be exposed to the reality of the target culture through the language classes. It will help the students get motivated to the language learning, and it will classes. It will help the students get motivated to the language learning, and it will finally result in successful second language learning.
finally result in successful second language learning.
(3) Acculturation (3) Acculturation
Second language learning is often second culture learning. In order to understand Second language learning is often second culture learning. In order to understand j
jusust t whwhat at sesecocond nd cucultlturure e leleararniningng, , onone e neneededs s to to unundedersrstatand nd ththe e nanatuture re of of acculturation.
acculturation. Acculturation Acculturation refers to the process of becoming adapted to a newrefers to the process of becoming adapted to a new culture (Brown, 1994). Cook (2001) defines that acculturation refers to the ways in culture (Brown, 1994). Cook (2001) defines that acculturation refers to the ways in which second language users adapt to life
which second language users adapt to life with two languages.with two languages.
One aspect of acculturation is
One aspect of acculturation is culture shock culture shock . A person’s world view, self-identity,. A person’s world view, self-identity, and systems of thinking, acting, feeling, and communicating can be disrupted by a and systems of thinking, acting, feeling, and communicating can be disrupted by a change from one culture to another. Culture shock is a common experience for a change from one culture to another. Culture shock is a common experience for a person learning a second language in a second culture. It refers to phenomena person learning a second language in a second culture. It refers to phenomena ranging from mild irritability to deep psychological panic and crisis. It’s associated ranging from mild irritability to deep psychological panic and crisis. It’s associated with feelings in the learner of estrangement, anger, hostility, indecision, frustration, with feelings in the learner of estrangement, anger, hostility, indecision, frustration, unhappiness, sadness, loneliness, homesickness, and even physical illness.
According to Brown (1994), there are
According to Brown (1994), there are successtive stages of acculturationsuccesstive stages of acculturation. He says. He says the first stage
the first stage is the period of excitement and euphoria over the newness’ of theis the period of excitement and euphoria over the newness’ of the surroundings.
surroundings. The second stageThe second stage – culture shock – emerges as individuals feel the– culture shock – emerges as individuals feel the intrusion of more and more cultural differences into their own images of self and intrusion of more and more cultural differences into their own images of self and security. Persons undergoing culture shock view their new world out of resentment security. Persons undergoing culture shock view their new world out of resentment and alternate between being angry at others for not understanding them and being and alternate between being angry at others for not understanding them and being filled
filled with with self-self-pitypity.. The third stageThe third stage is one of gradual, and at first tentative andis one of gradual, and at first tentative and va
vacicillllatatinging, , rerecocoveveryry. . ThThis is ststagage e is is cacalllled ed cucultlturaural l ststreressss, , sosome me prproboblelems ms of of acculturation are solved while other problems continue for some time (Larson and acculturation are solved while other problems continue for some time (Larson and smalley, 1972). In this stage, individuals begin to accept the differences in thinking smalley, 1972). In this stage, individuals begin to accept the differences in thinking and feeling second culture.
and feeling second culture. The fourth stageThe fourth stage represents near or full recover, eitherrepresents near or full recover, either assimilation or adaptation, acceptance of the new culture and self-confidence in the assimilation or adaptation, acceptance of the new culture and self-confidence in the “new ” person that has developed in this culture.
“new ” person that has developed in this culture.
Schumann (1975)
Schumann (1975) proposed the Acculturation Model as a means of accounting forproposed the Acculturation Model as a means of accounting for the
the difdifferferencences es in in lealearnerners’ rs’ ratrate e of of devdeveloelopmepment nt and and in in thetheir ir ultultimaimate te levlevel el of of achievement in terms of the extent to which they adapt to the target-language achievement in terms of the extent to which they adapt to the target-language cu
cultlturure. e. He He clclaiaimms s ththat at sesecocond nd lalangnguauage ge acacququisisititioion n is is jujust st onone e asaspepect ct of of acculturation and the degree to which a learner acculturates to the target-language acculturation and the degree to which a learner acculturates to the target-language gr
grououp p wiwill ll cocontntrorol l ththe e dedegrgree ee to to whwhicich h he he acacququirires es the the sesecocond nd lalangnguauagege. . HeHe suggests that acculturation affects L2 acquisition by its effect on the amount of suggests that acculturation affects L2 acquisition by its effect on the amount of contact learners have with TL speakers. The great the contact, the more acquisition contact learners have with TL speakers. The great the contact, the more acquisition takes place. Subsequently, Schumann (1986) suggests that acculturation may affect takes place. Subsequently, Schumann (1986) suggests that acculturation may affect the nature of the verbal interactions that learners take part in and thus the quality the nature of the verbal interactions that learners take part in and thus the quality as well as the internal processes that are involved in acquisition. He explains that as well as the internal processes that are involved in acquisition. He explains that the
the exextentent t to to whiwhich ch lealearnerners rs accaccultulturaurate te depdependends s on on two sets two sets of of facfactortors s whiwhichch determine their levels of
determine their levels of social distancesocial distance andand psychological distance psychological distance..
(4) Social Distance (4) Social Distance
Acco
According rding toto SchumSchumann ann (197(1978)8),, socisocial al distadistancence rerefefers rs to to ththe e exextetent nt to to whwhicichh individual learners become members of the target-language group and, therefore, individual learners become members of the target-language group and, therefore, ach
achievieve e concontactact t witwith h thethem.m. BrowBrown n (19(1994)94) definedefines s thatthat socisocial al distadistancence is is ththee cogni
cognitive and tive and affecaffective proximtive proximity ity of of two culturetwo cultures s that come that come into contact withininto contact within ind
indiviividuadual. l. DisDistantance ce memeans ans disdissimsimilailaritrity y betbetweween en twtwo o culculturtures. es. FoFor r exexamampleple,, Americans are culturally similar to Canadians, while Americans and
Americans are culturally similar to Canadians, while Americans and Chineses are, byChineses are, by comparison, relatively dissimilar. We could say that the social distance of the latter comparison, relatively dissimilar. We could say that the social distance of the latter case exceeds the former.
In the perspective of social distance,
In the perspective of social distance, Schumann (1978)Schumann (1978) describes hypotheticallydescribes hypothetically goo
good d and and bad bad lanlanguaguage ge lealearnirning ng sitsituatuation ion in in secsecond ond lanlanguaguage ge lealearnirning. ng. In In thethe description, he uses factors such as dominance, integration pattern, cohesiveness, description, he uses factors such as dominance, integration pattern, cohesiveness, con
congruegruencence, , attattituitude, de, and and lenlength gth of of reresidsidencence. e. SchSchumaumann nn desdescricribesbes a a gogoood d language learning situation
language learning situation is one where 2 LL group is non-dominant in relation tois one where 2 LL group is non-dominant in relation to the TL group, where both groups desire assimilation for the 2LL group, where low the TL group, where both groups desire assimilation for the 2LL group, where low enclosure is the goal of both groups, where the two cultures are congruent, where enclosure is the goal of both groups, where the two cultures are congruent, where the 2LL group is small and non-cohesive, where both groups have positive attitudes the 2LL group is small and non-cohesive, where both groups have positive attitudes tow
towardards s eaceach h othother, er, and wherand where e the 2LL the 2LL grgroup oup intintends to ends to reremamain in in in the targethe targett lan
languaguage ge ararea ea for a for a lonlong g timtime. e. UndUnder er sucsuch h conconditdition sociaion social l disdistantance ce wouwould ld bebe minimal and acquisition of the target language would be
minimal and acquisition of the target language would be enhanced.enhanced.
Schumann also explains
Schumann also explains two bad language learning situationstwo bad language learning situations. One is the situation. One is the situation where TL group views the SLL group as dominant and the SLL group views itself in where TL group views the SLL group as dominant and the SLL group views itself in the same way, where both groups desire preservation and high enclosure for the the same way, where both groups desire preservation and high enclosure for the 2LL group, where the SLL group is both cohesive and large, where the two culture 2LL group, where the SLL group is both cohesive and large, where the two culture are not congruent, where the two groups hold negative
are not congruent, where the two groups hold negative attitudes toward each other,attitudes toward each other, and where the 2LL group intends to remain in the TL area only for a short time. The and where the 2LL group intends to remain in the TL area only for a short time. The other is the situation has all the characteristics of the first except that in this case, other is the situation has all the characteristics of the first except that in this case, the
the 2LL 2LL grgroup oup wowould uld conconsidsider er itsitself elf subsuborordindinate ate and and wowould uld alsalso o be be conconsidsiderereded subordinate by the TL group.
subordinate by the TL group.
Cook (2001) says that the roots of motivation to learn a second language are deep Cook (2001) says that the roots of motivation to learn a second language are deep wit
within hin the the stustudendents’ ts’ minminds ds and and thetheir ir culculturtural al bacbackgrkgrounounds. ds. StuStudendents’ ts’ culculturturalal background relates to the background projected by the L2 culture. Lambert (1981) background relates to the background projected by the L2 culture. Lambert (1981) makes an important distinction between additive and subtractive bilingualism. In makes an important distinction between additive and subtractive bilingualism. In additive bilingualism
additive bilingualism, the learners feel they are adding something new to their skills, the learners feel they are adding something new to their skills and experience by learning a new language, without taking anything away from and experience by learning a new language, without taking anything away from what they already know. In
what they already know. In subtractive bilingualismsubtractive bilingualism, on the other hand, they feel, on the other hand, they feel that the learning of a new language threatens what they have already gained for that the learning of a new language threatens what they have already gained for themselves. Successful L2 learning takes place in additive situations’ learners who themselves. Successful L2 learning takes place in additive situations’ learners who see the second language as diminishing themselves will not succeed. Lambert says see the second language as diminishing themselves will not succeed. Lambert says that the best way to release the potential of bilingualism is to transform students’ that the best way to release the potential of bilingualism is to transform students’ subtractive experiences with bilingualism and biculturalism into additive ones.
subtractive experiences with bilingualism and biculturalism into additive ones.
References References
Brown, H. D. (1994). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. Prentice Hall. Brown, H. D. (1994). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. Prentice Hall. Cook, V. (2001). Second Language Learning and Language Teaching. Arnold. Cook, V. (2001). Second Language Learning and Language Teaching. Arnold. Ellis, R. (1994). The Study
10
10. . WhWhat at dodoes es it it memean an to to be be bibililingnguaual l anand d whwhat at arare e ththe e didiffffererenent t tytypepes s of of bilingualism?
bilingualism?
According to Webster’s dictionary (1961),
According to Webster’s dictionary (1961), bilingualbilingual is defined as ‘having or usingis defined as ‘having or using two
two lanlanguaguages ges espespecieciallally y as as spospokeken n witwith h the the flufluencency y chacharacracterterististic ic of of a a natnativeive speaker; a person using two languages especially habitually and with control like speaker; a person using two languages especially habitually and with control like that of a native speaker’ and
that of a native speaker’ and bilingualismbilingualism as ‘constant oral use of two languages.’’as ‘constant oral use of two languages.’’
Bilingualism
Bilingualism has often been defined and described in terms of categories, scales,has often been defined and described in terms of categories, scales, and dichotomies, such as ideal versus
and dichotomies, such as ideal versus partial bilingual, coordinate versus compoundpartial bilingual, coordinate versus compound bi
bililingnguaual, l, anand d so so onon. . ThThesese e nonotitionons s arare e gegeneneraralllly y rerelalateted d to to susuch ch fafactctorors s asas proficiency, function, and others. In the popular view, being bilingual equals being proficiency, function, and others. In the popular view, being bilingual equals being abl
able e to to spespeak ak two two lanlanguaguages ges perperfefectlctly; y; thithis s is is alsalso o the the appapproroach ach of of BloBloomfomfielieldd (193
(1935), 5), who who definedefiness bilingualismbilingualism as as ““natnativeive-l-likike e concontrtrol ol of of two two lanlanguaguagesges.” .” ByBy contrast, Haugen (1953) draws attention to the other end, when he observes that contrast, Haugen (1953) draws attention to the other end, when he observes that bilingualism
bilingualism begbegins ins whwhen en the the spespeakaker er of of one one lanlanguaguage ge can can proproducduce e comcomplepletete mean
meaningful utterancingful utterances es in in the other the other langualanguages. Diebold (1964) gives ges. Diebold (1964) gives a a miniminimalmal de
defifininitition on of of bibililingnguaualilism sm whwhen en he he ususes es ththe e tetermrm incipiincipient ent bilingubilingualismalism toto characterize the initial stages of contact between two languages.
characterize the initial stages of contact between two languages.
Hamers and Blanc (2000) say the concept of
Hamers and Blanc (2000) say the concept of BilingualismBilingualism refers to the state of arefers to the state of a linguistic community in which two languages are in contact with the result the two linguistic community in which two languages are in contact with the result the two codes can be used in the same interaction and that a number of individuals are codes can be used in the same interaction and that a number of individuals are bil
bilingingual ual (so(sociecietal tal bilbilinguingualialism)sm); ; but but it it alsalso o incincludeludes s the the conconcepcept t of of bilbilinguingualialityty (i
(indndivivididuaual l bibililingungualalisism)m). . AcAccocordrdining g to to HaHamemers rs (1(198981)1),, bilinguality bilinguality iis s tthhee psychological state of an individual who
psychological state of an individual who has access to more than one linguistic codehas access to more than one linguistic code as a means of social communication; the degree of access will vary along a number as a means of social communication; the degree of access will vary along a number of
of didimemensnsioions ns whwhicich h arare e pspsycychoholologigicacal, l, cocognignititiveve, , pspsycychoholilingunguisistitic, c, sosocicialal psychological, social, sociological, sociolinguistic, sociocultural and linguistic.
psychological, social, sociological, sociolinguistic, sociocultural and linguistic.
When qualifie
When qualifiers rs are used are used to to descrdescribe ibe bilingbilingualisualism m or or bilingubilingualityality, , they generallythey generally focus on one single dimension of these phenomena which are thereby viewed from focus on one single dimension of these phenomena which are thereby viewed from a particular angle. However, we must not lose sight of the fact that bilinguality and a particular angle. However, we must not lose sight of the fact that bilinguality and bilingualism are multidimensional phenomena which must be investigated as such. bilingualism are multidimensional phenomena which must be investigated as such. Ha
Hamemers rs anand d BlBlananc c (2(200000) 0) sasay y ththat at ththerere e arare e a a nunumbmber er of of psych psychologiological cal and and sociological dimensions of bilinguality
