BHAGWATI INTERNATIONAL PUBLIC SCHOOL
Dr. Indu Dayal Meshri Primary English School
INVESTIGATORY PROJECT ON
“
The preparation of soap
”
Guided by: - Mr. Nabakishor Sorokhaibam
Submitted by: - Rohan .D. Patel
This is to certify that
Mr. Rohan Patel
student of XII science Roll no
___________worked on project titled-
“The
preparation of soap”
held in Bhagwati
International Public School during the
academic year
2016-2017
.
He worked sincerely under the guidance of
faculties and prepared this dissertation.
External Teacher Subject Teacher
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all, I am immensely indebted to almighty god for
his blessings and grace without which I could not have
undertaken this task and my efforts would never have
been a success.
I humbly consider a privilege and honor to
express my heartiest and profound gratitude to Mr.
Rajendra.S. Malwal, principal BIPS, Patan. For his
appropriate direction, valuable suggestion, under judging
assistance so generously extended to me.
I wish to express my deepest feelings of gratitude to Mr.
Nabakishor Sorokhaibam, chemistry department, BIPS
Patan. For his erudite involvement and sustained guidance
which has been pivotal in my project work. His minute
observation, precious insights, critical comments have
indeed greatly helped to shape my ideas.
This guidance and support received from my
entire classmates who contributed and who are
contributing to this project, is vital for the success of this
project. I am grateful for their constant support and help.
I also owe sense of gratitude to my parents for
encouragement and support throughout the project.
Contents.
Sr. no
Title
Page no.
1.
Introduction
1
2.
Micelle
2
3.
History
3
4.
The making of
soap.
4.
5.
Properties
7
6.
The universe of
soaps.
9
7.
Biodegradable
&
non-biodegradable
soaps.
12
8.
Difference
between soap
and
detergents.
14
9.
Experiment.
16
10.
Conclusion.
18
Introduction.
In chemistry, soap is a salt of a fatty acid. Soap
are mainly used as surfactants for washing,
bathing, cleaning.
Fats and oils are composed of triglycerides; three
molecules of fatty acids are attached to a single
molecule of glycerol. The alkaline solution, which
is often called lye, brings about a chemical
reaction as saponification.
They have a polar end which is hydrophilic (water
loving) and a long non-polar chain which is
hydrophobic (water hating). As a consequence,
they can form emulsion by suspending oil in
water.
Fatty end of water soluble end
CH
3-(CH
2)
n-COONa
Soaps are useful for cleaning because soap
molecules have both a hydrophilic end, which
dissolve in water, as well as a hydrophobic end,
which is able to dissolve non-polar grease
MICELLE.
Micelle is an aggregate of surfactant molecule dispersed in a liquid colloid.
In an aqueous solution, molecules having polar or charged group and non-polar regions (amphiphilic molecules) form aggregate called micelle. In a micelle, polar or ionic heads form an outer shell in contact with water, while non-polar tails are sequestered in the
interior.
Hence, the core of micelle, being formed of long non-polar tails, resembles an oil or gasoline drop. The number of amphiphilic molecules forming the aggregate is called aggregation number; it is a way to describe the size of the micelle.
History of cleaning
soap.
Early History
The earliest recorded evidence of the production of soap-like materials dates back to around 2800 BC in
ancient Babylon. A formula for soap consisting of
water, alkali, and cassia oil was written on a Babylonian clay tablet around 2200 BC.
The Ebbers papyrus (Egypt, 1550 BC) indicates
the ancient Egyptians bathed regularly and combined animal and vegetable oils with alkaline salts to create a soap-like substance. Egyptian documents mention a soap-like substance was used in the preparation of wool for weaving.
In the reign of Nab nidus (556–539 BC), a recipe for soap consisted of uhulu [ashes], cypress [oil] and sesame [seed oil] "for washing the stones for the servant girls".
Ancient Rome
The word soap, Latin for soap, first appears in Pliny the elder’s historia naturalis, which discusses the
manufacture of soap from tallow and ashes, but the only use, is it is as pomade for hair.
A popular belief claims soap takes its name from a supposed Mount Sapo, where animal sacrifices where
The making of soap.
There are three main ingredients in plain soap, they are oil/fat, lye/alkali and water. Other ingredients may be added to give the soap a pleasant odor or color, or to improve its skin-softening qualities. Some soap is better made using soft water, and for these it is a necessary to either use rainwater or to add borax to tap water.
Lyes are extremely caustic. They cause burns if splashed on the skin and can cause blindness if splashed in the eyes. If drunk, they can be fatal. Care is needed while handling lyes and ‘green’ (uncured) soap.
There are two types of soap: - Soft & Hard soap.
Soft soap can be made using either a cold process or a hot process, but hard soap can only be made using hot process.
To make any soap it is necessary to dilute the lye, mix it with the fat or oil, and stir the mixture until
saponification takes place.
The cold process may require several days or even
months, depending upon the strength and purity of the ingredients, whereas hot process takes place within few minutes to few hours.
Dispose of soap-making wastes carefully outdoors, do not put them in the drain.
several things may cause problem with the normal action of soap molecules.
One of these is the presence of left-over starting materials. Extra fat will make the soap feel greasy. Positively-charged ions tend to bond with negative end of
the soap molecules, either precipiting the molecules completely, or interfering with the ion-dipole interactions
between the soap molecules and the water.
1.4 million deaths can be prevented each year by handwashing with soap
Children under 5 who wash with soap can reduce their risk of pneumoniaby 46%
1/3 of the worlds soap is used by the U.S
10 Billion pounds of soap are produced each year
The average person encounters 100 chemicals before breakfast The largest soap bubble was created on October 9th, 2005 and measured 105.4 cubic feet. If you could fill it with baseballs it would hold 13.627 of them.
To prepare a sample of soap and to
examine its properties.
Equipment’s:
250ml beaker.
Sodium hydroxide (20% solution) 100ml beaker
Ethanol Wire gauge
Saturated solution of sodium chloride Laboratory burner
Calcium chloride (5% solution) Glass stirring rod
Magnesium chloride (5% solution)
Test tube and ferric chloride (5% solution) Filter flask and Buchner funnel
Kerosene and filter paper
Phenolphthalein indicator solution Cooking oil and graduated cylinder
Watch glass to extinguish possible ethanol flames
Procedure:
I. Measure 20g of cooking oil into a 250ml beaker. Add 20ml of ethanol and 25ml of 20% sodium hydroxide solution. Stir the mixture in the beaker. Place the beaker on wire gauze on a ring stand and heat gently.
Heat this solution gently, keep the flame away from the top of the beaker to prevent the alcohol from catching on fire.
III. Turn off the burner and allow the beaker to cool down.
IV. Move it safely to bench top.
V. Add 100ml of saturated sodium chloride to your soap preparation and stir the mixture thoroughly. VI. It is used to remove the soap from water, glycerol,
and any excess sodium hydroxide present. VII. Filter off the soap with a vacuum filtration
apparatus and wash once with ice water.
VIII. Weigh your dried soap and record the weight.
Properties:
Washing properties.
Take a small amount of soap and try to wash your hands with it. It should lather rather easily if soft water or use deionized water.
Record your observations.
Emulsification.
Put 5-10 drops of kerosene in a test tube containing
10ml water and shake to mix. Emulsion or suspension of tiny oil droplets in water will be formed. Let this stand for a few minutes
Prepare another test tube with the same ingredients and also add a small portion (1/2g or so) of your soap. Shake to mix. Compare the relative stability of the two
emulsions.
When you have obtained a reasonably clear solution, pour about 15ml into each of three test tubes.
Test one of the three tubes with 10 drops of 5% CaCl2
solution, one with 10 drops of 5% MgCl2 solution and one
with 10 drops of 5% FeCl3 solution.
Let these solutions stand, then make your observations.
Basicity: - Soap with free alkali can be very damaging to skin, silk, or wool.
It’s test
Dissolve a small piece of your soap in 15ml of ethanol and then add two drops of phenolphthalein. It the indicators turn red; the presence of free alkali is indicated.
Fats and oils are hydrolyzed(split) with a high pressure to yield crude fatty acids and glycerol. The fatty acids are then purified by distillation and
neutralized with an alkali to produce soap and water (neat soap in a liquid form).
Fatty acid + NaOH > glycerol + sodium soap. Sodium soaps are “hard” soap.
The more saturated the oil (tropical vegetable oils such as coconut oil), the harder the soap.
Fatty acid + KOH > glycerol + potassium soap Potassium soap are softer and are found in some liquid hand soap and shaving cream.
The universe of different types of
soap.
Kitchen soaps
They are further categorized into two: cleansers and detergents.
Cleansers
Cleansers are often made with mild abrasives and they are formulated to eliminate heavy oil or solid particles and hard-to-remove stains. The cleansers come in many different types depending on the type of abrasives they contain.
Detergents
Dish detergents are made to remove tough grease and release the solid dirt particles in the foam that is produced by the detergent. There are two types of dish detergents: machine dishwasher detergents and hand dishwashing detergents.
Laundry soaps
Laundry soaps are formulated to eliminate grease, solid particles and organic compounds from clothes. They can be found
in liquid, powder and gel forms.
Cleaning soaps
Cleaning soaps have different formulations to clean grease and soil. The difference between cleansers and cleaning soaps is that cleaning soaps don't contain harsh abrasives.
hair soaps that have a mix of ingredients that cleans both the skin and hair.
Novelty soaps
Novelty soaps are especially manufactured for the kids and include the soaps in the shapes of various items, such as a rubber ducky or the soap-on-the-rope. There are made not only to clean dirt and grime, but for amusement and enjoyment as well.
Perfumed soaps
Perfumed soaps are produced by adding a few additional ingredients and perfume.
Guest soaps
Guest soaps are miniature soaps that are made and shaped into attractive shapes and they are basically designed for the use by guests either in the main bathroom or separate guest bathroom. Popular and commonly used shapes are flowers, sea shells and rounds
Beauty soaps
Beauty soaps are produced to feature attractive fragrances, and ingredients for a variety of skin types. They can feature glycerin, or special oil blends.
Medicated soaps
Medicated soaps and original soap are very similar. Unlike
original soap, medicated soap has the addition of antiseptics and disinfectants.
Glycerin soaps
Glycerin is a normally produced during the process of soap production. Soaps which include glycerin in them tend to make your skin feel moister.
Transparent soap
Transparent soap uses slightly different ingredients and usually some form of alcohol to alter the process which is also conducted at higher temperatures. Not all transparent soaps are glycerin soaps.
Liquid soaps
Liquid soaps are actually very difficult to produce and many of the commercial liquid soaps are just in fact detergents.
2.6 million bars of soap are discarded daily by the hotel industry in the U.S. alone
Lack of access to WASH contributes to two of the three leading killers of children under the age of five in the world – pneumonia, which can be prevented by good handwashing and better hygiene; and diarrhea, which comes from drinking unsafe water and lack of sanitation. With good quality water, sanitation, and hygiene, children’s lives can be saved.Biodegradable & non-biodegradable
soap.
Biodegradable soap:
A biodegradable soap is a cleaning agent that can decompose naturally over time. These soaps can help reduce environmental impact when hikers, backpackers, and campers need to bathe or clean their belongings.
Depending on the formulation of soap that is purchased, it can be used on the body, face, hair, hands and objects such as dishes and clothes.
Non-toxic soaps can be made with organic oils so as to remain environmentally friendly. Oils can be used in soap
formulations not only to provide a nice fragrance, but also as part of a therapeutic bathing experience. For example, lavender
and peppermint oils can help relax a tense hiker. Tree
oil, eucalyptus and pumice ingredients can help soothe aching feet. Jojoba, castor and almond oils are other common oils used in soap formulations.
It is important for individuals to realize that using a
biodegradable soap does not necessarily mean that the soap is safe to use around all water sources. These soaps degrade over time, but they require contact with soil to do so. If it isn't used at least 200 feet (60.96 m) from water sources, it can pollute them and make them unsuitable for other uses.
Non -- biodegradable soap: -
Non-biodegradable soaps are cleaning agents which cannot decompose naturally over time. This kind of soaps can be a threat to earth, it can cause soil, water and other type of pollutions.
This kind of soap feels good while using but they can cause some kind of side effects to the applied surface(skin). Normally
professional and instant beauty soap are made with toxic(non-biodegradable) material.
Its formulation depends upon the kind of area in which they are going to be used. Soaps with strong smell and constant exposure to it can even cause nervous breakdown, asthma and migraines. The three harmful ingredients present in this toxic soaps are
parabeans, sulfates and triclosan.
Let me explain what triclosan/triclocarban can do with us. The chemicals react with chlorine in tap water to produce dioxins. Dioxins are neurotoxins that can cause cancer, nerve disorders, and immune system disorders. The chemicals are endocrine disrupters, blocking thyroid hormone metabolism and attaching to hormone receptors to block hormones. According to the EPA, the chemicals can cause developmental and
reproductive toxicity. They are carcinogens. They contribute to antibiotic resistance in bacteria that causes infection in humans. According to the Natural Resources Defense Council (NDRC), in surveys of the American population between the ages of 6 and
Difference between soap
and detergent.
Soap: -
There are a variety of soaps. A soap is the metal salt of a fatty
acid.
The metal may be an alkali metal such sodium (Na) or potassium (K). These metals are found in the first column of the periodic table of the elements. Or, the metal can be an alkaline earth
metal, such as calcium (Ca) or magnesium (Mg). These metals are found in the second column of the periodic table of the elements. A fatty acid is an organic compound most often of animal or plant origin. A fatty acid contains a long-chain aliphatic carbon
skeleton (with or without branches) with a carboxylic acid group (-COOH) at its end.
An example of a soap is potassium palmitate:
CH₃(CH₂)₁₄-COO⁻ K⁺
Detergent: -
Detergents have some similarities. But are often of synthetic origin. They are not made insoluble by
mineralized (or hard) water. Also, instead of a carboxylic acid group, a detergent contains a more highly ionic group. It may have a sulfate or a sulfonate group (-OS(O)₂-OH).
In addition, detergents can include one or more aromatic
There are even detergents that dissolve in solvents other than water, such as gasoline. These often include
nitrogen in their formulation. The nitrogen compound often includes a ring as part of its structure. Such compounds are not only detergents, but dispersants.
An example of a detergent is sodium lauryl sulfate:
CH
₃(CH₂)₁₂-OS(O)₂-O⁻ Na⁺
Soap and detergent properties in hard water.
The most important difference between a soap and detergent is their behavior in water. A big drawback of washing with soap is that it forms a scum in hard water, which is not easy to clean and is known to turn laundry into a hue.
Soaps form a scum in hard water, which is not easy to rinse away and is known to turn laundry, a grayish hue. The insoluble film that soap leaves can leave a residue on the laundry same like as would see in a shower stall
where hard water is present. On the other hand,
detergents react less to minerals in water hence does not leave this residue. In case you are living in an area,
where the water is soft, a soap will work satisfactorily, but even then a gradual build-up of calcium and
magnesium ions (also called 'curd') will be left on the fabric.
Experiment.
Objective: -
To compare the foaming capacity of various soaps.
Requirements: -
1. Five 100ml conical flasks
2. Five test tubes & stand
3. 100ml measuring cylinder
4. Weighing machine and stop watch
5. Five different soap samples
6. Distilled water & tap water
Procedure: -
i. Take five 100ml conical flasks and number
them 1,2,3,4 & 5. Put 16ml of water in each
flask and add 8g of soap.
ii. Warm the contents to get a solution.
iii. Take five test tubes; add 1ml of soap
solution to 3ml of water.
Repeat the process for each soap solution in different test tube.
