LONDON JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING RESEARCH 17UK. Volume 17 Issue 1 Compilation 1.0. Railway Track Performance. Alternative Mercerizing Agaents

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Alternative Mercerizing

Agaents Developed Short

Transmission Railway Track

Performance Alternative Mercerizing Agaents

LONDON JOURNAL OF

ENGINEERING RESEARCH

Volume 17 | Issue 1 | Compilation 1.0

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Volume 17 | Issue 1 | Compilation 1.0

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Journal Content

In this Issue

1.

Design and Fabrication of

Modified Air Conditioner with Split Cooling Unit

pg. 1-5

2.

Performance of a Developed Short Transmission Line Module: A Survey of Load Power-Factor Effects

pg. 7-17

3.

Investigating the Vertical Stiffness on Railway Track Performance pg. 19-30

4.

Design Analysis of New High Step-Up DC-DC Converter Suitable for Photovoltaic Application

pg. 31-42

5.

Improvement on the Dyeing and Water of Imbibition Properties of...

1

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19

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Featured blogs and online content

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Journal content

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London Journals Press Memberships pg. 43- 66

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A Novel Approach using Adaptive Nero Fuzzy based Droop Control Standalone Microgrid in

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Dr. Robert Caldelli

CNIT - National Interuniversity Consortium for Telecommunications

Research Unit at MICC Media Integration and Communication Center Ph.D.,

Telecommunications andComputer Science Engineering, University of Florence, Italy

Dr. Xiaoxun Sunx Australian Council for Educational Research Ph.D., Computer Science

University of Southern Queensland

Dariusz Jacek Jakóbczak

Department of Electronics and Computer Science, Koszalin University of Technology, Koszalin, Ph.D., Computer Science, Japanese Institute of Information Technology,

Warsaw, Poland.

Dr. Yi Zhao

Harbin Institute of Technology Shenzhen Graduate School, China Ph.D.,

The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Hong Kong

Dr. Rafid Al-Khannak

Senior Lecturer Faculty of Design, Media and Management Department of Computing Ph.D Distributed Systems Buckinghamshire New University, United Kingdom

Prof. Piotr Kulczycki

Centre of Information Technology for Data Analysis Methods, Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Faculty of Physics and Applied, Computer Science AGH University of Science and Technology, Poland

Dr. Shi Zhou

Senior Lecturer, Dept of Computer Science, Faculty of Engineering Science, Ph.D., Telecommunications Queen Mary, University, London

Prof. Liying Zheng

School of Computer Science and Technology, Professor for Computer Science, Ph.D.,

Control Theory and Control Engineering, Harbin Engineering University, China

Editorial Board

Curated board members

(7)

Dr. Saad Subair

College of Computer and Information Sciences, Alazaeim Alazhari University, Khartoum North, Sudan, Associate Professor of Computer Science and Information Ph.D., Computer Science- Bioinformatics, University of Technology

Emeritus Professor, Department of Mathematics, Dept. of Computer & Information,

Science & EngineeringPh.D.,

University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA

Dr. Ikvinderpal Singh

Assistant Professor,P.G. Deptt. of Computer Science & Applications,Trai Shatabdi GGS KhalsaCollege, India

Prof. Sergey A. Lupin National Research,

University of Electronic TechnologyPh.D., National Research University of Electronic Technology, Russia

Dr. Sharif H. Zein School of Engineering,

Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Hull, UKPh.D.,

Chemical EngineeringUniversiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia

Prof. Hamdaoui Oualid

University of Annaba, Algeria Ph.D., Environmental Engineering, University of Annaba, University of Savoie, France

Prof. Wen Qin

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Research Associate, University of Saskatchewan, Canada Ph.D., Materials Science,

Central South University, China

Luisa Molari

Professor of Structural Mechanics Architecture, University of Bologna,

Department of Civil Engineering, Chemical, Environmental and Materials, PhD in Structural Mechanics, University of Bologna.

Prof. Chi-Min Shu

National Yunlin University of Science and Technology, Chinese TaipeiPh.D.,

Department of Chemical EngineeringUniversity of Missouri-Rolla (UMR)USA

Prof. Te-Hua Fang

Department of Mechanical Engineering,

National Kaohsiung University of Applied Sciences, Chinese TaipeiPh.D., Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Chinese Taipei

Malasiya

Gerhard X Ritter

(8)

Dr. Fawad Inam

Facultyof Engineering and Environment, Director of Mechanical Engineering,

Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK, Ph.D., Queen Mary, University of London, London, UK

Dr. Rocío Maceiras

Associate Professor for Integrated Science, DefenseUniversity Center, Spain Ph.D., Chemical Engineering, University of Vigo, SPAIN

Muhammad Hassan Raza

Postdoctoral Fellow, Department of Engineering Mathematics and Internetworking,

Ph.D. in Internetworking Engineering, Dalhousie University, Halifax Nova Scotia, Canada

Rolando Salgado Estrada Assistant Professor,

Faculty of Engineering, Campus of Veracruz, Civil Engineering Department, Ph D., Degree, University of Minho, Portugal

Abbas Moustafa

Department of Civil Engineering,

Associate Professor, Minia University, Egypt, Ph.D Earthquake Engineering and Structural Safety, Indian Institute of Science

Dr. Babar shah

Ph.D., Wireless and Mobile Networks, Department of Informatics,

Gyeongsang National University, South Korea

Dr. Wael Salah Faculty of Engineering,

Multimedia University Jalan Multimedia,

Cyberjaya, Selangor, Malaysia,Ph.D, Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Power Electronics

and Devices, University Sians Malaysia

Prof. Baoping Cai Associate Professor,

China University of Petroleum,

Ph.D Mechanical and Electronic Engineering, China

Prof. Zengchang Qin

Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics Ph.D.,

University of Bristol, United Kingdom

Dr. Manolis Vavalis University of Thessaly, Associate Professor, Ph.D., Numerical Analysis,

University of Thessaloniki,Greece

(9)

Dr. Mohammad Reza Shadnam

Canadian Scientific Research and Experimental Development Manager-Science,

KPMG LLP, Canada, Ph.D., Nanotechnology, University of Alberta, Canada

Dr. Gang Wang

HeFei University of Technology, HeFei, China, Ph.D.,

FuDan University, China

Kao-Shing Hwang Electrical Engineering Dept.,

Nationalsun-Yat-sen University Ph.D., Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Taiwan

Mu-Chun Su

Electronics Engineering,

National Chiao Tung University, Taiwan, Ph.D. Degrees in Electrical Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park

Zoran Gajic

Department of Electrical Engineering, Rutgers University, New Jersey, USA Ph.D. Degrees Control Systems, Rutgers University, United States

Dr. Homero Toral Cruz Telecommunications,

University of Quintana Roo, Ph.D., Telecommunications Center for Research and Advanced Studies National Polytechnic Institute, Mexico

Nagy I. Elkalashy

Electrical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering,

Minoufiya University, Egypt

Vitoantonio Bevilacqua

Department of Electrical and Information Engineering Ph.D., Electrical Engineering

Polytechnic of Bari, Italy

Dr. Sudarshan R. Nelatury

Pennsylvania State UniversityUSAPh.D., Signal ProcessingDepartment of Electronicsand Communications Engineering,

Osmania University, India

Prof. Qingjun Liu

Professor, Zhejiang University, Ph.D., Biomedical Engineering,

Zhejiang University, China

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Design and Fabrication of Modified Air Conditioner with Split Cooling Unit

Deepak Chauhan, Ravi Prakash Sethi, Aviraaz Chandra, Ashwani Sharma, Vivek Verma

ABSTRACT

Energy consumption all over the world is increasing day by day and there is need to develop new ways to conserve energy for future requirements. Air conditioner used in summer seasons, uses vapor compression refrigeration system which consumes large amount of power usually about 1.5 to 3.5 KW and is also very costly. This paper describes the design and fabrication of modified air conditioner with split cooling unit.

Basically, it is portable form of central air conditioning system which uses a low power compressor (refrigerator) for cooling a chamber containing water. This cooled water is then circulated for air conditioning. Performance analysis shows that it produced decent cooling and reduced power consumption.

Keywords:split air conditioning.

Classification: For Code: 090603p, 090604 Language:English

LJP Copyright ID: 661847 ISBN 10: 153763156 ISBN 13: 978-1537631561

Volume 17 | Issue 1 | Compilation 1.0

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Design and Fabrication of Modified Air Conditioner with Split Cooling Unit

Chauhan Deepak Ramsamujh^α, Ravi Prakash Sethi^σ, Aviraaz Chandra^ρ, Ashwani Sharma^¥

& Vivek Verma^§

____________________________________________

I. ABSTRACT

Energy consumption all over the world is increasing day by day and there is need to develop new ways to conserve energy for future requirements. Air conditioner used in summer seasons, uses vapor compression refrigeration system which consumes large amount of power usually about 1.5 to 3.5 KW and is also very costly. This paper describes the design and fabrication of modified air conditioner with split cooling unit. Basically, it is portable form of central air conditioning system which uses a low power compressor (refrigerator) for cooling a chamber containing water. This cooled water is then circulated for air conditioning. Performance analysis shows that it produced decent cooling and reduced power consumption.

Keywords:split air conditioning.

Author α σ ρ: UG Scholar, Mechanical and Automation Engineering, Amity University, Lucknow.

Author ¥ §: Assistant Professor, Mechanical and Automation Engineering, Amity University, Lucknow.

II. INTRODUCTION

Due to great consumption of energy in buildings and industries, there is a need to design an energy efficient system which consumes less power. In India, Union ministry of power’s research pointed out that about 20 to 25% of total electricity utilized in government buildings gets waste due to non-productive designs of the components and systems resulting in the loss of about Rs. 1.5 billion. Conventional vapor compression air conditioning systems consumes very large portion of electrical energy which is produced by fossil fuels. This type of air conditioning is therefore neither eco- friendly nor sustainable.

III. DESIGN LAYOUT

In this design, we have implemented a split cooling unit which is coupled with the chiller plant. This split unit will take water from the insulated water tank with the help of pump, and circulate it through heat exchangers. Thus, the air will become cool without increasing its humidity.

Fig. 1: Block diagram of the model

The split unit is a simple rectangular insulated tank. In this tank, there is a heat exchanger i.e. a cooling coil. The water in the water tank is cooled with the help of refrigerant. This cooled water is pumped and then supplied to the split cooling unit. The purpose of the chiller plant is only to cool water in its tank.

3.1 Working

The working of the system starts with from outdoor unit which is consisting of Water Pump, Insulated Water tank, Compressor, Condenser, Cooling coil and connecting pipes, metallic duct.

The water will be chilled with the help of compressor and the cooling coil assembled in the

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tank. Now, the chilled water will be pumped from water tank to the indoor unit equipped with cooling coils with the help of supply pump and connecting pipe.

The cooling coil in the indoor unit will be cooled with the help of chilled water coming from the water tank, the fins of the cooling coil will suddenly cool below -10 °C. The blower which is just above the cooling coil will suck the hot and humid air from the room and will give the conditioned air.

The advantages of modified split air conditioner unit are:

● The installation cost of the overall unit will be minimum compared to the window air conditioner.

● No Penta Plates required to cool the system.

● It can easily condition a small office or room of 10*10 Sq. Ft.

● The quality of the air conditioning will be very close to the normal air conditioning system.

● It is a very low power consuming device because here we have used 1/6 HP 1 Amp.

Compressor to cool the water tank.

● Maintenance cost of the system is relatively low and easy.

● The whole unit will be cost about Rs. 6 to 8 thousand only.

The device will be easily operated on voltage range of 160 V to 230 V

IV. FABRICATION

Various tools and equipment’s are used to fabricate the modified split air conditioner unit.

The primary components of the refrigeration system are:

Equipment’s Specifications

Water Tank 10 Liter.

Insulating material 2 Meter.

Compressor 1/8 HP (1 Amp.)

Condenser 1

Evaporator (Cooling Coil) 2

Water Pump 1

Evaporative Fan 1

Connecting Pipes 7 feet

Drier Filter 1

Charging Pin 1

Capillary 1

¼ Copper Pipe 2 feet.

Brazing Rod 2

Thermostat 1

a) Compressor: The compressor here used is 1/8 HP 1 Amp. Hermitically sealed Reciprocating compressor used in refrigerator.

Fig. 2: Compressor

b) Condenser: It allows the high pressure &

temperature vapor refrigerant to cool down and condense to a highly-pressurized liquid. The condensing refrigerant loses heat to the atmosphere. Air or water are the medium used for the heat transfer. De-superheating, condensing and sub cooling of refrigerant takes place in the condenser.

Fig. 3: Air Cooled Condenser

c) Evaporator (cooling coil): It allows the low- pressure refrigerant to evaporate at low temperature. The evaporating refrigerant absorbs heat from the refrigerated space and cools it. The refrigerant becomes a low-pressure vapor and renters the compressor. It is normally made of aluminum tubing attached with fins.

Design and Fabrication of Modified Air Conditioner with Split Cooling Unit

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Fig. 4: Cooling coil

d) Capillary: Capillary tube resists fluid flow. It is a long length of seamless small & accurate diameter tubing. It reduces pressure, by reducing the flow of refrigerant through its length. It is the dividing point between the high and low pressure sides of the system.

Fig. 5: Capillary Tube

e) Insulated Water tank: A water tank of approx.

10 liters is used to store the water as a reservoir. It is completely insulated so that no heat is loss. A cooling coil is kept inside the water tank to cool the water. It also consists a submersible pump.

Fig. 6: Water Tank

f) Submersible Pump: A submersible pump is placed inside the liquid cooling block. It pumps the water from the liquid cooling block to the

Aluminum heat exchanger tubes. The water then flowsintothesump.

Fig. 7:Submersible Pump 3.2 Fabricated System

The experimental setup is as shown in the above figure. In this split type air conditioner, the indoor and outdoor sections of the room air conditioners are separated into two cabinets. The indoor units consist of evaporator coil and evaporator blower or fan. It is installed inside the room to be conditioned. It can be installed on ceiling, walls or on the floor. It is also known as fan coil unit or evaporator unit.

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Fig. 8: Working model of AC

The outdoor unit consist of an insulated water tank of about 10 Liters, 1/6 HP Compressor, condenser, dry filter and an evaporator also known as cooling coil to cool the water in the tank, a capillary (expansion valves) and a water pump to pump the water to the indoor unit through PVC pipes. The outdoor unit is also known as chiller plant. The distance between indoor and outdoor units has to be as close as possible and the lines should have less number of bents. Since the compressor is installed away from the room to be conditioned, the noise level is appreciably lower than room window air conditioners.

3.3 Working

The working of the system starts with from outdoor unit which is consisting of Water Pump, Insulated Water tank, Compressor, Condenser,

Cooling coil and connecting pipes, metallic duct.

The water will be chilled with the help of compressor and the cooling coil assembled in the tank. Now, the chilled water will be pumped from water tank to the indoor unit equipped with cooling coils with the help of supply pump and connecting pipe.

The cooling coil in the indoor unit will be cooled with the help of chilled water coming from the water tank, the fins of the cooling coil will suddenly cool below -10 °C. The blower which is just above the cooling coil will suck the hot and humid air from the room and will give the conditioned air.

V. PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS The output of Modified Split Air Conditioner is:

1. Lower room temperature.

2. Controlled humidity.

Experiment was conducted for 4 hours in a small room of 3X3X3 feet made of wooden board. Dry bulb temperature (DBT) and wet bulb temperature (WBT) was recorded at interval of 30 minutes. and relative humidity (RH) was calculated using psychrometric calculator[3].at an altitude of 123m (in Lucknow)

Initial Condition:

DBT= 36 °C WBT= 30°C

Relative humidity: 65%

Table 1: Observation Table Sr.

No.

Time (min.)

DBT

(°C) WBT (°C) RH (%)

1 00 36 30 65

2. 20 35 29 64

3. 40 33.5 28.5 69

4. 60 32 27 68

5. 80 30 26 73

6. 100 28 24 72

7 120 27 22 65

8 140 26.5 20.5 58

9 160 26 20 58

10 180 25.5 20 61

11 200 25 19.7 62

12 220 25 19.5 60

13 240 25 19.5 60

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Fig. 9:Time v/s Temperature Curve From the reading of Table 2 it was observed that after 4 hours the room temperature decreases from 36°C to 25°C by using Modified Split Air Conditioner. RH on other hand reduces from 65 % to 60%.

On psychrometric chart the effect of this system on temperature and humidity can be observed by process 1-2.

Fig. 10: Process on Psychrometric chart

VI. RESULTS & CONCLUSION The results are as follows: -

● The split unit maintain the temperature of room up to 25°C so it reduces the temperature of the air by 11°C.

● The total power consumption of the whole unit is 140 Watt, which is quite less than that of AC.

As the unit contains 1/8 HP compressor of 110 Watt, a submersible pump 19 Watt, An Evaporative Fan 10 Watt its power consumption is 140 Watt.

● It does not increase the humidity of air, the unit cools air sensibly.

The performance analysis confirmed that the modified split AC has decent cooling and moisture control. It can provide a Ac with low operating cost.

REFERENCES

1. Manohar Prasad, (2006), “Refrigeration and Air Conditioning”, New Age Inter-national Publishers, New Delhi.

2. Godrej ‘The complete appliance service Handbook’

3. http://www.kwangu.com/work/psychrometri c.htm

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Performance of a Developed Short

Transmission Line Module: A Survey of Load Power-Factor Effects

Peter M. Enyong

ABSTRACT

Keywords:line module, development, performance, load power-factor.

Classification: For Code: 090607, 850604p Language:English

LJP Copyright ID: 503079 ISBN 10: 153763156 ISBN 13: 978-1537631561

Volume 17 | Issue 1 | Compilation 1.0

A short transmission line (STL) module was designed and implemented. There had been a serious need to have such a module in the electrical power laboratory of Auchi Polytechnic in order to satisfy the National Board for Technical Education (NBTE) practical coverage requirement, especially as affecting experiments on transmission lines. In this paper a presentation is made of the development of the STL module, namely:

how four panel inductors connected in series were used, the unit being capable of 14.89mH, 5.77A, at 50Hz and 27V voltage drop, as realized from ammeter-voltmeter test; how, for module resistance requirement, eight industrial resistors were used (each being capable of 7.98Ω, 24W) and were connected in parallel to realize an effective resistance of about 1Ω; and, how a dedicated rheostat of 4.81Ω, 10A rating was selected for the purpose of line loss variation exercise.

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Performance of a Developed Short Transmission Line Module: A Survey of Load Power-Factor

Effects

Peter M. Enyong

I. ABSTRACT

A short transmission line (STL) module was designed and implemented. There had been a serious need to have such a module in the electrical power laboratory of Auchi Polytechnic in order to satisfy the National Board for Technical Education (NBTE) practical coverage requirement, especially as affecting experiments on transmission lines. In this paper a presentation is made of the development of the STL module, namely: how four panel inductors connected in series were used, the unit being capable of 14.89mH, 5.77A, at 50Hz and 27V voltage drop, as realized from ammeter- voltmeter test; how, for module resistance requirement, eight industrial resistors were used (each being capable of 7.98Ω, 24W) and were connected in parallel to realize an effective resistance of about 1Ω; and, how a dedicated rheostat of 4.81Ω, 10A rating was selected for the purpose of line loss variation exercise. The laboratory results obtained and computations for the STL module ABCD constants and other parameters showed clear differences in ten key parameters sequel to variation in load power- factor. It was conclusive that using this module will demonstrate to students the adverse effect which poor load power factors have on the performance of short transmission lines, thus highlighting the advantage of power-factor correction. It was also clear that the module will demonstrate to students the higher generation cost involved in sending electrical power to low power-factor loads.

Keywords: line module, development,

performance, load power-factor.

Author: Department of Electrical/Electronic Engineering Technology; Auchi Polytechnic, Auchi, Nigeria.

II. INTRODUCTION

The capital intensive nature of power system laboratory equipment procurement has made many a tertiary institution lacking in electrical power system laboratory facilities. Even where they are found to be provided, they are never adequate in quantity and in variety. Thus, in such a case where an institution is lacking in a standard transmission line trainer, a very welcome idea is to improvise with a locally developed transmission line module. The one involved in this work was meant to satisfy short transmission line laboratory experiments.

A short transmission line is one whose length is up to a distance of 50km but less than 80km, generally [1, 2, 3]. Its operational system voltage is comparatively low, being often less than 20kV [4, 5]; but higher voltage levels up to 69kV (and not above) are equally acceptable [6]. Thus, in Nigeria our short transmission lines are mostly of 33kV voltage rating. Usually, in power system modeling, the short transmission line is represented by an impedance, precisely a series impedance [7]. This is because for such distances and voltage levels as stipulated above, the line shunt admittances are negligible [8, 9, 10] and a very simple network is realized. Among the transmission line data obtainable by the use of the developed short transmission line module include the following: (i) line impedance, (ii) the A, B, C, D constants, (iii) line I²R loss, (iv) transmission efficiency, (v) voltage regulation, (vi) transmission angle, δ, (vii) the active and reactive power delivered.

By way of the organization of this paper, the next section (i.e. Section 2) shall deal with Materials and Methods. The 3^rd Section has been dedicated to Test Results, Computations and Discussion;

____________________________________________

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whereas, Conclusion and Recommendations shall constitute the terminal section of this paper.

III. MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1 Materials

3.1.1 Core Physical Materials

The chief materials featuring in this work were industrial inductors (4 in number) recovered from an obsolete DANE electrical machine trainer (see sample in Fig. 1(a)). The reactance and inductance of the above mentioned set of

determined experimentally. Providing for the resistive part of the line module, a set of industrial resistors were selected (see sample in Fig. 1(b)) to be connected in series with the inductor unit.

Resistor selection was necessarily done after the possible full-load current of the inductor unit was determined. In order to introduce variable line losses (where required) a dedicated rheostat was specified for external application, which shall vary the fixed resistance of the STL module, increasingly (see Fig. 1(c)).

Fig. 1:(a) The Inductor, (b) The Resistor, and (c) The Dedicated Rheostat 3.1.2 Equivalent Circuit and Relevant Equations

The equivalent circuit of a short transmission line is as given in Fig. 2 (a) and the complexor or

phasor diagram is provided as in Fig. 2(b) [11, 12, 13].

Fig. 2: (a) Equivalent Circuit of a Short Transmission Line (b) Phasor Diagram of the Line.

As presented, the receiving-end voltage is made the reference vector; whilst the sending-end voltage leads it by an angle δ. The phasor diagram has been drawn in such a manner as to enable easy generation of the line equations. Definition of the circuit parameters is as follows: V2 – Receiving End Voltage = |V2|∠0^o; V1 – Sending End Voltage = |V1|∠δ; I– Line Full-Load Current;

R – Resistance; X – Inductive Reactance; δ –

Transmission Angle; ϕ – Load Power Factor Angle; and Z = R + jX.

The relevant short-line equations as obtainable from the equivalent circuit and phasor diagram are as detailed below [13, 14, 15].

(a) (b) (c)

IX V2

V₁

Vy

IR Vx I

Isin Icos

(a) (b) R X

I Z

LOAD

V₁ V2

inductors were unknown and had to be

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(a) Sending-End Voltage Equation: Applying Pythagora’s Theorem in Fig. 3 (a) yields

(

2

)

² ²

2

1 V Vx Vy

V = + +

(

V2 +RIcosφ +XIsinφ

) (

² + XIcosφ −RIsinφ

)

²

=

(

₂ cos sin

) (

² cos sin

)

² (1)

1 V RI

φ

XI

φ

XI

φ

RI

φ

V = + + + −

∴

(b) Transmission Angle Equation: Equation involving the transmission angle is expressed as

(

₂

)

₁

(

₂ ^cos ^sin

)

₁

cos

δ

= V +V_x V = V +RI

φ

+ XI

φ

V

( )

{ }

) 2 ( )

(

;

sin cos

cos ¹ ₂ ₁

shown not angle factor power end

sending the

is where or

V XI

RI V

φ φ

φ δ

φ φ

δ

− ′

= ′

+ +

=

∴ ⁻

(c) Voltage Regulation Equation: The voltage regulation is given by

(

2(NOLOAD} 2(FULLLOAD}

)

2(FULLLOAD}

reg V V V

V = −

For short transmission line, the No-Load Receiving-End Voltage equals the Sending-End Voltage.

Therefore,

(

V1 V2

)

V2 ⁽³⁾

V_reg = −

However, for very low transmission angles, which is desirable for stability purposes, the cosine of the transmission angle tends to unity and we can write

) 4 ( sin

2 cos

2

1 V V V RI

φ

XI

φ

V = + _x = + +

Thus, an approximate voltage regulation is realized as

(

^cos ^sin

)

⁽⁵⁾

)

(approx RI XI V₂

V_reg = φ + φ

(d) Line Loss Equation: The line loss is due to the resistive parameters of the network and the equation thereof is given as

) 6

2R ( I P_LOSS =

(e) Efficiency Equation: The efficiency of any system is expressed in percentage as

% , 100

P x P

P Power Active Output

LOSS OUT

OUT

= +

η

For a short transmission line therefore we shall have

) 7 (

% 100 cos *

cos

2 2

2

R I I

V I V

= +

φ η φ

Also, the relevant equations from laboratory experimental results are as provided below (involving the apparatus setup of Fig.5); where for a short transmission line the ammeters, I1 and I2, often register approximately the same current; hence, I1 = I2 = I.

(f) Load Power Factor and the Power Factor Angle: The load power factor and the associated power factor angle are obtained as follows

(23)

( )

{ }

(8)

cos

cos ¹ ₂ ₂

2

2 and W V I

I V

W ₋

=

φ

where W1 and W2 are the input and output power values, respectively, as measured using wattmeters so designated.

(g) Supply Power Factor and the Power Factor Angle: Similarly, the supply power factor and the associated power factor angle are

( )

{ }

(9)

cos

cos ¹ ₁ ₁

1

1 and W VI

I V

W ′= −

′=

φ

(h) Line Loss and Line Module Resistance: These are computed from the relations

) 10

2 (

2

1 W and R P I

W

P_LOSS = − = _LOSS

(i) Line Module Impedance, Reactance and Inductance at Rated Line Current: They are realized from

( )

⁽¹¹⁾

; ² ² ¹^/² 2

2 1

f L X and R

Z I X

V Z V

=

π

−

− =

=

It is to be noted that the full-load values of the experimental data shall chiefly be used in the computations, as shall be seen shortly.

3.2 Methods

In order to obtain all the STL data of which the module shall be used to demonstrate to students,

the methods of open-circuit test, short-circuit test and load test were effectively employed (see Fig. 3 for apparatus assembly). To begin with, an ammeter-voltmeter laboratory experiment was used to determine the reactance of the inductor unit as shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 3: Apparatus as setup for Open-Circuit and Load Test of the Short Transmission Line

3.2.1 Ammeter-Voltmeter Set-up for

Determination of Inductor Reactance &

Inductance:

The four inductors were connected in series to form a single inductor unit (designated as X in Figs. 3 & 4). With laboratory apparatus as set-up in Fig. 4 for the purpose, care was taken to ascertain that the variac was initially on its zero mark. The inductor unit was excited until it hummed sufficiently to reflect the flow of its full- load current under short-circuit condition (as could often be determined from laboratory

work experience). The readings obtained were as follows: P = 0Watt; I = 5.77Amps; V = 27Volts.

From the data so obtained, we have a total reactance X = 27/5.77 = 4.679Ω, and total inductance L = X/2πf = 14.89mH at 50Hz. Since the input wattmeter registered zero (0) Watt reading, it was confirmative that the recovered inductive devices were truly inductors; hence, the need to include a resistance aspect by use of discrete resistors, in the development of the STL.

220V 50Hz

Variac

N

L X

R

The STL Module S₂ ^LOA_D S₁ I′2

V′2

P′2

P′1

I′1

V′1

(24)

Fig. 4: Apparatus as setup for Short-Circuit Test of the Inductor 3.2.2 Selection of the Module Resistance & Means

of Line Loss Adjustment

Assuming the line module to deliver 5.77 A(maximum) at 220V to an average load power- factor of 0.8 p.u., we shall be dealing with a maximum output power, Pout(m) = 5.77*220*0.8 = 1015.5W. And considering a favourable line loss of not more than 5% of delivered active power as in [16, 17], we shall be looking at a maximum line loss, Ploss(m) = 1015.5*0.05 = 50.78W. Therefore, the total resistance, R, of the STL module shall be 50.78/(5.77²) = 1.525Ω. However, eight panel type resistors (each being capable of 7.98Ω, 24W) were connected in parallel to give an effective resistance of approximately 1Ω, 24A.

For the means of line loss variation, a dedicated rheostat was selected and made to satisfy external application. Considering a maximum line loss addition of 10% (of delivered active power) which attracts additional 1.525x2 = 3.05Ω at 5.77A, the available and adequate laboratory rheostat rated 4.81Ω, 10A was thus selected.

3.2.3 Stipulation of the STL Module Ratings:

From all the considerations in (i) and (ii) above, the STL module was rated as 5.00A (i.e. 85 – 90%

of the inductor maximum current of 5.77A, also from laboratory work experience) and 220V, 50Hz; being full-load receiving-end current, voltage and frequency, respectively.

3.2.4 Open-Circuit, Short-Circuit and Load (OC, SC

& L) Tests on the Line Module:

For the purpose of the OC, SC & L tests on the module, the relevant apparatus were connected as earlier shown in Fig. 3 (see pictorial display of the set-up in Fig. 5 below). The OC test was carried out with the switches S1 and S2 kept open, whilst voltage was applied to the module via the variac.

In the case of the SC test switch S1 was kept open and S2 closed, and then voltage was applied accordingly. The readings on all the wattmeters, ammeters and voltmeters were taken in both cases.

Fig. 5: Pictorial Display of Apparatus as setup for OC, SC and L Test on the STL module (with Induction Motor as Load)

Concerning the load test, the variac was left at the present position (of full adjustment or 220V on meter V′2, as the case may be), switch S2 was

made open, whist S1 was closed and the load was supplied with power via the variac. The type of load connected was first a 2.2kW, 220V, 50Hz

Voltmeter

Wattmeter P

Ammeter

V I I

Variac

N 220V 50Hz

L “X” Inductor

Input Wattmet

Output Wattmeter

Motor Variac

Short Transmission Line Module

(25)

single-phase induction motor made to run light;

next was a combination of a laboratory inductive load bank with a resistive load bank, and then followed by a largely resistive load bank rated 80Ω, 5A, 3kW Here, only the readings on meters

P′2, V′2 and I′2 were taken. Figure 6 (b) and (c) are pictorial display of the laboratory inductive load bank and the resistive load bank, respectively.

(NB: A combination of the two did produce a load power factor of 0.5682 p.u.).

Fig. 6: Pictorial Display of (a) an Inductive Load Bank; (b) a Resistive Load Bank

IV. TEST RESULTS, COMPUTATIONS AND DISCUSSION 4.1 Test Results

The results obtained from the laboratory experiments were as recorded in Table 1 that immediately follows.

Table 1: Record of the OC, SC and L Tests on the Module

Test Type Power Voltage Current

P′1 P′2 V′1 V′2 I′1 I′2

OC Test 0W 0W 219V 218V 0W 0W

SC Test 20W 0W 23V 0W 4.41A 4.57A

Inductive-Motor Load Test

-- 240W -- 198V -- 5.00A

Inductive/Resistive Load Test

-- 390W -- 220V -- 3.12A

Resistive Load Test -- 560W -- 220V -- 2.63A Remark Equipment Contact Temperature during Tests = 30^oC

4.2 Computations

The computations were carried out as detailed below.

4.2.1 General Computations

(a) R, X and Z from Short-circuit Test Result Let the short-circuit current be estimated here as

I′ = (I′1 + I′2)/2 = (4.41 + 4.57)/2 = 4.49A Therefore

Resistance, R = P′1/ I′² = 20/(4.49²) = 0.992Ω

(a) (b)

(26)

Impedance, Z = V′1/I′ = 23/4.49 = 5.12Ω

Reactance, X = (Z² – R²)^½ = (5.12² – 0.992²)^½ = 5.023Ω Impedance Angle, θ = tan^-1(5.023/0.992) = 78.83^o Thus, Z = |Z|∠θ = 5.12∠78.83^o or (0.992 + j5.023)Ω (b) Generalized (ABCD) Constants

The Generalized Constant, |A| = |V10|/V20| =219/218 ≈ 1.00p.u.

The Generalized Constant, |C|=|I10|/|V20| =0.00/218 = 0 mho The Generalized Constant, |B| = |V1s|/|I2s| = 23/4.57 = 5.03Ω The Generalized Constant, |D| = |I1s|/|I2s| = 4.41/4.57= 0.965p.u.

4.2.2 Computations from Load Test Results (a) From Inductive-Motor Load Test Results

As computations had to necessary be based on the receiving-end voltage of 220V rating, it was important to first normalize the receiving-end current and power test values to that base (i.e. V2 = 220V); the normalized quantities being identified without a {′}. Hence, we have

I2 = (V2/V′2) I′2 = (220/198)5 = 5.556A P2 = (V2/V′2)²*P′2 = (220/198)²*240 = 296.3W Now, we can have

Apparent power delivered at V2 (= 220V) as, │S2│= │V2││I2│ = 220*5.556 = 1222.2VA Active power delivered, PD = P2 = 296.3W

Receiving-end or Load Power Factor, cosϕ2 = PD /│S2│

= 296.3/1222.2 = 0.2424p.u.(lagging) And ϕ2 = cos^-10.2424 = 75.97^o

Reactive Power Demand of Load System, QD = |S|sinϕ2

= 1222.2*sin75.97^o = +1185.7VAr Receiving-end or Load Current is thus, I2 = │I2│∠(-ϕ²) = 5.556∠(-75.97^o)A

Line Voltage Drop, Vd = (Z∠θ)(I∠-ϕ²)

= [5.12∠(78.83^o)]*[5.556∠(-75.72^o)]

= 28.447∠2.86^oor (28.412 + j1.419)V Sending-end Voltage for Rated Receiving-end Voltage, V1 =V2 + Vd

= (220 + j0) + (28.412 + j1.419)

= (248.412 + j1.419)V or 248.42∠0.327^o Transmission Angle is thus, δ = 0.327^o

Line Loss on, Ploss = I²R = 5.556²*0.992 = 30.62W

Transmission Efficiency, η = [296.3/(296.3 + 30.62)]*100 = 90.63%

Voltage Regulation, Vreg = [(|V1| – |V2|)/|V2|]*100

= [(248.42 – 220)/220]*100 = 12.92%

(27)

(b) From Inductive/Resistive Load Test Results

In this case, normalization of the receiving-end current and power test values was not necessary since both the output current and power were obtained at the rated or base voltage (V2 = 220V). Hence, we can write:

Apparent power delivered │S2│= │V2││I2│

= 220*3.12 = 686.4VA Active power delivered, PD = P2 = 390W

Receiving-end power factor, cosϕ2 = PD /│S2│

= 390/686.4 = 0.5682 p.u.(leading) And ϕ2 = cos^-10.5682 = 55.38^o

= 686.4sin55.38^o = 564.86VAr Receiving-end or Load Current is thus, I2 = │I2│∠(-ϕ²) = 3.12∠(-55.38^o)A

Line Voltage Drop, Vd = (Z∠θ)(I∠-ϕ²)

= (5.12∠78.83^o)*(3.12∠(-55.38^o)

= 15.974∠(23.45^o)or (14.655 + j6.357)V Sending-end Voltage for Rated Receiving-end Voltage, V1 =V2 + Vd

= (220 + j0) + (14.655 + j6.357)

= (234.655 + j6.357)V or 234.74∠(1.55^o) Transmission Angle is thus, δ = 1.55^o

Line Loss, Ploss = I²R = 3.12²*0.992 = 9.657W

Transmission Efficiency, η = [390/(390 + 9.657)]*100 = 97.58%

Voltage Regulation, Vreg = [(|V1| – |V2|)/|V2|]*100

= [(234.74 – 220)/220]*100 = 6.70 % (c) From Resistive Load Test Results

Here also, normalization of the receiving-end current and power test values was not necessary for the same reason as in (b) above. Therefore, it could be state that:

Apparent power delivered │S2│= │V2││I2│

= 220*2.63 = 578.6VA Active power delivered, PD = P2 = 560W

Receiving-end power factor, cosϕ2 = PD /│S2│

= 560/578.6 = 0.9679 p.u. (lagging) And ϕ2 = cos^-10.9679 = 14.56^o

= 578.6*sin14.56^o = 145.46VAr Receiving-end or Load Current is thus, I2 = │I2│∠(-ϕ²) = 2.63∠(-14.56^o)A