PHARMACY Module 1 Summary

Module 1

Pharmaceutical Chemistry

Inorganic and Organic Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry

Kathreen Mae D. Cascabel BSPharmacy

General Chemistry

Chemistry – study of matter

Matter – anything that occupies space and has mass 1. Composition

2. Structure

3. Changes that matter undergoes

4. Energy involved in such changes or interactions Mass – refers to the amount of matter present in the material Weight = Mass x Pull of gravity

Classification of Matter

 Element - simplest form of matter, 1 kind of material or atom

 Compound - substances composed of two or more elements united chemically in definite proportion

 Mixture - composed of 2 or more substances that are not chemically combined

UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

Length Meter (m) Mass Kilogram (kg) Time Seconds (sec) Temperature Kelvin (K)

Plasma

 Colorless fluid part of blood, lymph, or milk in which corpuscles or fat globules are suspended Serum

 Amber- colored protein-rich liquid that separates out when blood coagulates

 Used to provide immunity

Classification of Mixture

A. According to the Nature of Particles a. Homogenous

b. Heterogenous

B. According to the Size of Particles

a. Solution - uniform mixture (homogenous), composed of solute and solvent where solute is soluble b. Suspension - Coarse Mixture, finely divided solid materials distributed in a liquid where solid is insol. c. Colloid - particles of solute not broken down to the size of the molecules but are small enough to

remain suspended and evenly dispersed throughout the medium Process of Separating Components of Mixtures

1. Decantation - difference in specific gravity or density 2. Distillation - evaporation and then condensation 3. Evaporation

4. Magnetic Separation 5. Filtration

6. Sorting

7. Centrifugation - speeding up of settling process of a precipitate

8. Fractional Crystallization - lowering of temp so that the more insoluble comp crystallizes out first 9. Chromatography - difference in solvent affinity

Properties of Matter

1. Intrinsic/Intensive - INDEPENDENT of mass or amount (density, specific gravity, melting point) 2. Extrinsic/Extensive - DEPENDENT on mass (weight, volume, pressure, heat content)

Changes that matter undergoes

2. Chemical Change - change in both intrinsic and extrinsic properties Evidences of Chemical Change

 Evolution of gas

 Formation of precipitate

 Emission of light

 Generation of electricity

 Production of mechanical energy

 Absorption/liberation of heat Types of Chemical Reactions

A. Direct Union Fe + S  FeS (all sulfides are BLACK) B. Decomposition/Analysis Na2CO3  Na2O + CO2

C. Single Replacement Na + HCl  NaCl + H2

D. Double Displacement NaCl + AgNO3  NaNO3 + AgCl

Processes Involved in Chemical Change

1. Oxidation +𝑂 2. Reduction −𝑂 𝑜𝑟 + 𝐻 3. Neutralization 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 + 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒  𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 4. Hydrolysis 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡  𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 + 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 5. Saponification 𝑎𝑙𝑘𝑎𝑙𝑖 + 𝑓𝑎𝑡𝑠  𝑠𝑜𝑎𝑝 + 𝑔𝑙𝑦𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑙 6. Fermentation 𝑜𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠 + 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑒𝑠  𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑕𝑜𝑙

3. Nuclear Change – ∆ in structure, properties, composition of the nucleus  in the transmutation of the element

 Nuclear Fission - splitting of a heavy atom

 Nuclear Fusion - union of 2 light atoms to form a bigger molecule

+1 +2 +3 -1 H Be Al F Li Mg Cl Na Ca Br K Sr -2 I Rb Ba O At Cs Ra S Fr Oxidation state computations:

1. KMnO4 K = +1 (1) = +1 Mn = x O4 = -2 (4) = -8 1 + x – 8 = 0 X = +7 2. Na2Cr2O7 Na2 = +1 (2) = +2 Cr2 = x (2) = 2x O7 = -2 (7) = -14 +2 + 2x – 14 = 0 2x = 14 – 2 2x = 12 X = +6 3. AsO3-3 As = x O4 = -2 (4) X – 8 = -3 X = 8 – 3 X = +5

ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Similarities Difference Isotopes Element Mass number Isotones Neutrons Protons Isobars Mass number Element Isomers Molecule Structure

Democritus Matter is made up of small indivisible particles | Coined “atomos” John Dalton “Billiard Ball Model” – atom is a hard indestructible sphere

Dalton’s Atomic Theory

 Matter is made up of atoms

 All atoms of a given element are alike

 Atoms enter into a combination with other atoms to form compounds but remain unchanged during ordinary chemical rxn

Atom can combine into simple numerical ratios Disproved: subatomic particles

J.J Thompson “Raisin Bread” model

Rutherford Proton; Gold Film Experiment: Atom is mostly an empty space (99% passed) Niel Bohr Model Planetary model

Erwin Schrodinger Quantum Mechanic Model; “Electron Cloud” – electrons move in 3D structure (Orbitals) James Chadwick Neutron

Protons = Electrons = Atomic number Neutrons = Mass number – Atomic number Mass no. = Protons + Neutrons

Electrons = Protons - Charge

ION P = 6 Cation = 12 +1 E = P - Charge + C = 6 – (+1) N = Mass no. – P 6 = 5 = 12-6 = 6 Anion = 12 -1 E = P -Charge E = P – charge - C = 6 – (-1) = 6 – 0 6 = 7 = 6

ION – charged atom

 Atomic Number - number of protons

 Mass number - protons + neutrons

ALLOTROPISM

 Allotrope – atoms of different elements can link together in different ways to form substances with diff properties

 Allotropes of Carbon : Diamond and Graphite

 Allotropes of Oxygen o *O+ nascent o O2 molecular

o O3 ozone

Orbitals – region in space where the probability of finding an electron is greatest

QUANTUM NUMBERS

Symbol Values Function

Principal Quantum Number

 Main energy level

n 1, 2, 3 (+ integer)

Determine the size of the particle

Azimuthal or Angular Momentum

l 0 to (n-1) Subshell or sublevel,

determines the shape (s, p, d, f)

Magnetic Quantum Number m or ml -l to +l Orbitals, determine the

orientation

Spin Quantum Number s or ms - ½ or + ½ Direction of the spin or

rotation

Law of Conservation of Mass

- The total mass of all products of a chemical reaction is equal to the total mass of all reactants of that reaction

Law of Definite Proportions/Proust’s Law - Inorganic compounds

- A chemical compound always contains exactly the same proportion of elements by mass Law of Multiple Proportion

- Organic compounds

GENERAL PRINCIPLES IN ELECTRON CONFIGURATION

Pauli’s Exclusion Principle – No two electrons can have the same set of 4 quantum numbers Each atomic orbital can only accommodate 2 electrons (Ex: 1s2) Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle – Impossible to determine simultaneously the e- momentum & position Aufbau Building Up Principle – Lower energy levels are filled up first

Hund’s Rule of Maximun Multiplicity – Orbitals are filled up singly before pairing up

PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier - Hydrogen, First true periodic table

Johann Dobereiner - Triads (Li, Na, K | Ba, Ca, Sr | S, Se, Te | Cl, Br, I)

Newlands - Octaves

Meyer and Mendeleev - Physical and chemical properties are periodic functions of their atomic weights Henry Mosley - Elements are arranged based on atomic numbers (present)

Family A

 Representative Elements

 Occupy: o S block

 Group IA – Alkali Metals  Group IIA – Alkaline Earth o P Block

 Group IIIA to VIIIA Family B

 Transition elements

 Occupy:

o D block: Transition Metals

o F block: Lanthanide or Lanthanoid series – Rare Earth Metals

PERIODIC TRENDS (noble gases not included)

Atomic Radius (½ the distance bet 2 nuclei) Ionization potential (energy to remove an e-) Metallic Property Electron affinity (energy when e- is added)

Electronegativity (ability to attract e-)

*Arrows indicate increasing values

Kinematic Molecular Theory – explains phases of matter based on movement (exclu. direction) of molecules/ions/atoms

 SOLID - definite shape and size, definite volume

 LIQUID - follows the shape of container, definite volume

 GAS - indefinite shape and volume

SOLUTIONS – homogenous mixture single phase system of two of more substances

 Saturated Solution - maximum amount of solute

 Unsaturated Solution - less solute

 Supersaturated Solution - more solute than the solvent can dissolve Factors Affecting Solubility

1. Nature of Solute and Solvent

 “Like dissolves like”

Solubility – maximum amount of solute expressed in grams that can be dissolved in 100 g of water Miscibility – ability of one substance to mix with another substance

2. Temperature

 ↑ temperature = ↓ solubility of a gas

Exothermic – solubility decreases with increase in temp (Mg citrate) Endothermic – solubility increases with increase in temp

3. Pressure ( for gases only)

Henry’s Law – the solubility of a gas increases as pressure increases 4. Particle Size/Surface Area

 Decreased particle size = Increased surface area = Increased solubility 5. Presence of Salts

 Salting Out – presence of salt decreases solubility

Methods of Expressing Concentration of Solutions Percent Solution

 % by mass

 % by volume

 % mass/volume

 ppm (parts per million)

 proof

Mole (n) = grams/MW

Mole fraction (x) = moles of the substance total moles of solution Molarity (M) – moles of solute per L of solution Molality (m) – moles of solute per kg of solvent Normality (N) – no. of equivalents of solute per L of solution

FORCES OF ATTRACTION

INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES – within molecules 1. Ionic Bond - transfer

2. Covalent Bond - sharing a. Polar (unequal) b. Nonpolar (equal)

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES – between molecules; physical attraction 1. Van der Waals

a. Keesom (Dipole-dipole)

o Orientation/Alignment effect o 1-7 kcal/mole

b. Debye (Dipole-Induced Dipole) o Induction

o 1-3 kcal/mole

c. London Dispersion (Induced dipole-Induced dipole)

o Very close proximity  internal vibration will cause dispersion of charges o 0.5-1 kcal/mole

2. Ion-Dipole - charged ion + polar molecule (salt & water) 3. Ion-Induced Dipole - charged ion + nonpolar molecule (I2 + KI)

4. Hydrogen Bond - between H and electronegative atom (F, O, N, Cl, S) ; can be intramolecular (A=T) Physical Properties of Systems

1. Additive Property - depends on sum | molecular weight

2. Constitutive Property - type and arrangement | optical rotation, refractive index 3. Colligative Property - number of solute | VPL, BPE, FPD, OP

Density = mass per unit volume (M/V)

Specific gravity = density of sample/density of standard

COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES – property of solution depend on the number of solute particles dissolved in a solvent

Colligative Property Notes Formula

Vapor Pressure Lowering  The addition of a non-volatile solute lowers the VP of a liquid

 A liquid in a closed container will establish an equilibrium with its vapor

 When equilibrium is reached, vapor exerts a pressure (vapor pressure)

VOLATILE – exhibits VP

NONVOLATILE – no measurable VP

Raoult’s Law – lowering of a vapor pressure of a solvent is equal to the product of the mole fraction of the solute and vapor pressure of the solvent

– 𝜟𝑷 = 𝑷° 𝒙 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

Boiling Point Elevation BP – temp at which liquid pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure (1 atm = 760 mmHg) The boiling point of a solution containing a non-volatile solute would be higher than the pure solvent because the solute would lower the vapour pressure of the solvent

∆𝑇_𝑏= 𝐾_𝑏𝑚 ∆𝑻_𝒃 = 𝑲_𝒃𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒘𝟐

𝒘_𝟏𝑴𝑾_𝟐

Kb = ebullioscopic/molal BPE constant

(0.52 °C/m) m = molality

w1 = weight of solvent

w2 = weight of solute

MW2 = molecular wt of solute

Freezing Point Depression FP – temp at which the solid and liquid phases are in equilibrium under an external pressure In general, solutions have a lower freezing point than the pure solvent

Applications:

 Salt is spread on roads to melt ice

 Ethylene glycol as “anti-freeze”

∆𝑇_𝑓 = 𝐾_𝑓𝑚

∆𝑻_𝒇= 𝑲_𝒇𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒘𝟐 𝒘_𝟏𝑴𝑾_𝟐 Kf = cryoscopic/FPD constant

(Kf = 1.86°C/m)

Osmotic Pressure Osmosis – movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from low to high concentration

This is the pressure required to offset the movement of solvent thru a s. membrane Also defined as the pressure required to prevent osmosis in solutions.

Hypertonic – causes crenation Hypotonic – causes swelling/lysis Isotonic – 0.9% (w/v) NaCl

𝝅𝑽 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻 𝑜𝑟 𝝅 = 𝑴𝑹𝑻 π = osmotic pressure in atm V = volume in L

n = no of moles of solute

R = gas constant (0.08205𝐿.𝑎𝑡𝑚_{𝑚𝑜𝑙.𝐾}) T = absolute temperature

GAS LAW FORMULA CONSTANT Boyle's/Mariotte 𝑷₁𝑽₁ = 𝑷₂𝑽₂ 𝑜𝑟 𝑷 ∝𝟏_𝑽 Temperature Charles' 𝑽₁_𝑻₁

=

𝑽₂_𝑻₂

𝑜𝑟 𝑽 ∝ 𝑻 Pressure Gay-Lussac's 𝑷₁_𝑻₁= 𝑷₂_𝑻₂ 𝑜𝑟 𝑷 ∝ 𝑻 Volume Combined

𝑷₁𝑽₁

_𝑻₁

=

𝑷₂𝑽₂

_𝑻₂

Ideal

𝑷𝑽 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻

R = 0.08206 _{𝑚𝑜𝑙.𝐾}𝐿.𝑎𝑡𝑚 At STP: T = 273.15 K P = 1 atm V = 22.4 L

Real/Van der Waals

(𝑷 +

𝒂𝒏

𝟐

𝒗

𝟐

) (𝑽 − 𝒏𝒃) = 𝒏𝑹𝑻

an

2

= internal pressure per mole

nb

= incompressibility

Rauolt’s

𝑷

𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

= 𝑿

𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕

𝑷

𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕

X = mole fraction Temperature

Henry’s Law of Gas

Solubility

𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 ∝ 𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚

Temperature

Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures

Total pressure in a mixture is equal to the sum of

the partial pressures of each gas

𝑃

_𝑡

= 𝑃

₁

+ 𝑃

₂

+ 𝑃

₃

… ….

Avogadro’s

Volume of gas at STP is directly proportional to the

number of moles

𝑽₁ 𝒏₁= 𝑽₂ 𝒏₂ 𝑜𝑟 𝑽 ∝ 𝒏 𝑜𝑟 𝑽 𝒏= 𝒌 k = 6.022 X 1023 Graham’s

Rate of diffusion and speed gas are inversely

proportional to the square root of their density

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒

_{𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛}

∝

1

√𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

Diffusion – gradual mixing of molecules of one gas with molecules of another gas by virtue of kinetic properties Effusion – passage of a gas under pressure through a small opening

ACIDS AND BASES

Electrolytes – conductors

 Weak Electrolytes: incomplete dissolution

 Strong Electrolytes: strong acids and bases, complete dissolution Non-Electrolytes – will not dissociate, will not conduct electricity

Acid-Base Theories

Theory Acid Base

Arrhenius Yields H+ or H3O+ OH

-Bronsted-Lowry Theory Proton donor Proton acceptor Lewis Theory E- acceptor E- donor

Pearson’s HSAB Hard acids are e- acceptor with high positive charges and relatively small sizes while soft acids have positive charges and relatively small ACIDS

 Sour taste

 Litmus: blue to red

 + metals  H gas

 + carbonate and bicarbonate  CO2

 Phenolphthalein: colorless

 Methyl orange: pink/red

 HCl, HClO3, HClO4, HBr, HI, HNO3, H2SO4, H3PO4

BASES

 Bitter taste

 Litmus: red to blue

 Feel slippery

 Phenolphthalein: Pink to violet

 Methyl orange: Yellow

 NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2

NEUTRALIZATION – Acid + Base



Salt and Water

Titration – progressive addition of a sol’n of known concentration to a substance of unknown conc Indicator – Substance that changes color at the end point

Neutralization point (Stoichiometric point/Equivalence Point/Theoretical Point)

– point when equal amounts of acid and base have reacted; non-observable Endpoint – Experimental approximate of neutralization point; observable

pH – the negative logarithm of the H+ concentration 𝒑𝑯 = −𝒍𝒐𝒈 [𝑯+]

Sorensen’s pH scale For weak acids 𝐻𝐴 + 𝐻2𝑂 ↔ 𝐻3𝑂+ + 𝐴− Neutral = 7 For weak bases 𝐵 + 𝐻2𝑂 ↔ 𝑂𝐻− + 𝐵𝐻+ Acidic < 7 Water Ionization 𝐻2𝑂 + 𝐻2𝑂 ↔ 𝐻3𝑂+ + 𝑂𝐻− Basic > 7 pH Calculations Strong Acids 𝒑𝑯 = −𝒍𝒐𝒈 [𝑯+] Strong Bases 𝑝𝐻 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔 [𝑂𝐻 −] or 𝒑𝑯 = 𝟏𝟒 − (−𝒍𝒐𝒈 [𝑶𝑯−]) Weak Acids 𝑝𝐻 =1₂𝑝𝐾𝑎 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐶𝑎 Weak Bases 𝑝𝐻 = 𝑝𝐾𝑤 − 𝑝𝐾𝑏 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒_{𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡} or 𝑝𝐻 = 𝑝𝐾𝑤 −1₂(𝑝𝐾𝑏 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐶𝑏)

BUFFERS

 Solutions that have the property of resisting changes in pH when acids or bases are added to them

 This property results from the presence of a buffer pair which consists of either: - Weak acid and some salt of a weak acid or its conjugate base

- Weak base and some salt of a weak base or its conjugate acid Henderson-Hasselbach Equation

Weak acids 𝑝𝐻 = 𝑝𝐾𝑎 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔_{𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑}𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡

Weak bases 𝑝𝐻 = 𝑝𝐾𝑏 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒_{𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡}

Buffer Capacity (Buffer action/Buffer efficiency/Buffer index/Buffer value)

 Ability of a buffer solution to resist changes in pH Approximate formula

𝒑𝑯 = 𝒑𝑲𝒂 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈_{[𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅]−[𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆]}[𝒔𝒂𝒍𝒕]+[𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆]

Exact formula/Koppel-Spiro Van Slyke’s Equation

𝜷 = 𝟐. 𝟑𝑪

𝑲𝒂[𝑯𝟑𝑶+]

(𝑲𝒂+[𝑯𝟑𝑶+])𝟐

Where C = total buffer concentration, that is, the sum of the molar concentrations of the acid and the salt.

Maximum Buffer Capacity - occurs when pH = pKa - 𝜷𝒎𝒂𝒙= 𝟎. 𝟓𝟕𝟔 𝑪

THERMOCHEMISTRY

Heat (q) - an energy transfer due to temperature difference

Work (w) - form of energy transfer between a system and its surroundings in the form of compression or expansion of gas

Internal Energy (U) - total energy attributed to the particles of matter and their interactions within a system, composed of thermal energy and chemical energy

Enthalpy (H) - energy of a reaction Entropy (S) - degree of disorderliness

Heat Capacity (c) - amount of heat required to raise the temperature of an object or substance by 1 degree Specific Heat - amount of heat required to raise the temperature of an object per gram

Chemical Reactions

1. Endothermic Process - reaction wherein heat is absorbed by the system, indicated by a (+) change in enthalpy 2. Exothermic Process - reaction wherein heat is released by the system, indicated by a (-) change in enthalpy

Spontaneous Non-Spontaneous

Enthalpy -H +H

Entropy +S -S

Reaction Exothermic Endothermic

Hesse’s Law – the total energy is the sum of all energies in all steps of a reaction

Le Chatelier’s Principle

 When a stress is applied to a system in equilibrium, the equilibrium shifts to relieve the stress

Laws of Thermodynamics

1. Law of Conservation of Energy, states that energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be redistributed or changed from one form to another. 2. The second law of thermodynamics says that the entropy of any isolated

system not in thermal equilibrium almost always increases.

3. The third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a system

GROUP IA: ALKALI METALS

 Most reactive metals

 Valence = 1

A. HYDROGEN (inflammable air)

o Lightest and most reactive element o Isotopes:

a. Protium - most abundant b. Deuterium - heavy hydrogen (D2O)

c. Tritium - radioactive Hardness of water

Temporary – Ca or Mg bicarbonates (removed by boiling/ addition of OH source) Permanent – sulfates, chlorides, or hydroxides of Ca or Mg

Water - official solutions, tinctures and extracts Purified Water - extemporaneous compounding test reagents Water for Injection - solvent for parenterals; must pass pyrogen test SWFI - extemporaneous compounding of parenterals

BWFI - has one or more antimicrobial agents (e.g. Benzyl alcohol) small volumes of IM injection, not for IV administration

B. LITHIUM (earth) o Lightest metal

o Depressant and Diuretic (SE: hyponatremia)

1. Lithium Bromide - Depressant

2. Lithium Carbonate (Lithase®, Eskalith®) - DOC for mania Lithium Toxicity (LMNOP)

 Lithium Side effects

 Movement (tremor)

 Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus (ADH antagonist  polyuria)

 Hypothyroidism

 Pregnancy problems (teratogenic)

IP3 – Inositol triphosphate (affected by Lithium) Mania

1. Distractability 2. Irresponsibility 3. Grandiosity 4. Flight of ideas

5. Increase in goal directed activity/ Psychomotor agitation 6. Decrease need for sleep

nitrites, nitrates, thiosulfates, thiocyanates are vasodilators C. SODIUM (natrium)

o Primary extracellular fluid cation o Action: fluid retention

Acetate Acetate of Soda Diuretic, Urinary and systemic acidifier, Antacid

Bicarbonate

Soda Saleratus Sal de Vichy

Soda acid Carbonate

Systemic antacid, Carbonating agent

SE: Alkalosis, Rebound hyperacidity, Edema Dihydrogen Phosphate/

Biphosphate NaH2PO4

Fleet Enema

Cathartic, Source of P or phosphate, Urinary acidifier(+ methenamine)  HCHO (formaldehyde), NH3  urinary antiseptic

Bisulfite

Leucogen

Sodium Hydrogen Sulfite Sodium Acid Sulfate

Anti-oxidant

Carbonate

Washing Soda, Sal soda Soda Ash

Monohydrate Na carbonate

Antacid, Carbonating agent

Chloride Rock/Table/Solar salt Electrolyte replenisher, Tonicity adjuster, Condiments, Preservative

Citrate Na3C6H5O7

Alkalizer, Buffer, Diuretic, Expectorant Shorten the coagulation time (parenterally)

Fluoride Anticariogenic (2% solution)

Hydroxide Caustic soda, sosa, lye Saponifying agent (hard soap)

Phosphite Reducing agent

Hypochlorite Dakin’s solution Chlorox

Oxidizing agent, bleaching agent Disinfectant (Labarraque’s solution)

Iodide Expectorant, Antifungal, Iodine solubilizer

Lactate Na3C3H5O3 Antacid, Diuretic

Nitrite NaNO2 Natrium, Nitrosum Cyanide poisoning, Meat preservative

Nitrate Chile salt peter

Sulfate Glauber’s salt Cathartic

Tartrate C4H4O6 Primary standard for KFR (Karl Fischer Reagent)

Thiocyanate Hypotensive agent (vasodilator)

Thiosulfate Na2S2O3 • 5H2O

Antichlor Hypochlor

Cyanide poisoning with Na nitrite VS in iodometry and permanganometry All iodides are for cough

D. POTASSIUM (kalium)

o Most abundant and predominant intracellular cation o Deficiency: hypokalemia

Manifestation: muscle paralysis (Barker’s syndrome) o Diuretic, Important in muscle contraction

Acetate Diuretic salts Antacid, Diuretic, Urinary and systemic alkalizer Bicarbonate Potassium Acid Carbonate

Salaeratus

Systemic antacid, carbonating agent, bicarbonate source

Bitartrate Cream of tartar

Creamor, Argol Laxative

Bromide Depressant

Carbonate

Potash Salt of peter

Perlash, Salt of Wormwood

Antacid, carbonating agent, carbonate source

Chlorate Oxidizing agent

Component in toothpaste, gargle & mouthwash Chloride Kalium Chloratum

Kali Chloridum Electrolyte replenisher (Note: SLOW push)

Citrate Diuretic, Expectorant, Diaphoretic

Hydroxide

Caustic potash Lye potash Potassa

Saponifying agent (soft soap) Iodide

Kalium Jodatum Expectorant, antifungal, iodine solubilizer

Nitrate

Saltpeter Salitre, Niter Salt prunelle

Diuretic, meat preservative

Permanganate Mineral chameleon Oxidizing agent, Antiseptic, VS in permanganometry Dihydrogen

Phosphate Cathartic

Na K Tartrate Rochelle salt

Sal signette Cathartic, sequestering agent

Thiocyanate Hypotensive

K2Sx • K2S2O3

Sulfurated potash Liver of sulfur

K arsenite Fowler’s Solution Antileukemic Sb K Tartrate Tartar emetic Schistosomiasis Oxalic acid

removes stains of

E. Ammonium (NH4)

o Hypothetical alkali metal o Pcol action:

a. Diuretic b. Buffer

c. Expectorant (like Iodide) d. Anti-cariogenic (like Fluoride)

Ammonium Bromide Depressant/Sedative

(NH4)2CO3 Ammonium carbonate Sal volatile Hartshorn Preston Salt Baker's Ammonia Ammonium Sesquicarbonate Expectorant (ammonium) Antacid (carbonate)

Basis of smelling salts (aromatic spirit of ammonia)

Aromatic NH4 Spirit

Spirit of Hartshorn

Spirit sal volatile Respiratory stimulant

NH4Cl

Muriate of hartshorn Ammonium Muriate Sal Ammoniac Salmiac

Expectorant, Diuretic, Urinary acidifier CI: Impaired hepatic function

Treatment for Brominism

HgNH2Cl

Mercuric Ammonium Cl Ammoniated mercury White precipitate

Topical anti-infective

NH4I Ammonium Iodide Source of iodide, expectorant, antifungal

NH4CH3COO

Ammonium acetate Spirit of minderesus Styptic Strong Ammonia

Solution

Ammonia Hydroxide Stronger Ammonia Water

Diluted Ammonia Solution

circulatory stimulant by inhalation

Ammoniacal AgNO3 Howe’s solution

F. CESIUM

o Catalyst in polymerization of resin forming material

Household ammonia – contains 10% NH4; is

GROUP IB: COINAGE METAL

– can occur in free metal state, Complexes/chelates

A. COPPER (Cuprum)

o Only reddish metal, 3rd

most malleable, 3rd best conductor o Protein precipitant, Enhances physiological utilization of iron

o Component of hemocyanin and cytochrome oxidase (Deficiency: Hypochromic anemia) o Alloys: Brass (+ Zn), Bronze (+ Sn)

o Wilson’s disease | D-Penicillamine

CuSO4 • 5 H2O Blue vitriol

Blue stone Caparrosa Azul Piedra Lipiz

Component of Benedict’s, Barfoed’s, and Fehling’s Antidote for P poisoning

Increase hematinic activity of Fe

Ingredient of Bordeux mixture



algaecide in pool *Cu3(AsO3)2 •

Cu(C2H3O2)2+

Paris green

Copper acetoarsenate

Insecticide (suicidal drug in the past) (Cu)3(C6H5O7)8 Astringent in 8% concentration

B. SILVER (argentum, shining, bright)

o Oligodynamic property (germicidal action) o Argyria | NSS or PNSS

Soluble AgNO3 Lapiz infernulariz

Lunar caustic Indelible ink

Caustic pencil, Azotas

Warts and Opthalmia neonatorum (1% drops) –

Crede’s prophylaxis

Present: Erythromycin (for N. gonorrhea and Chlamydia

trachomatis – no. 1 cause of blindness)

Ag(NH3)2NO3 Howe’s solution Dental protective, Desensitizing agent

Insoluble AgI Poisonous, Disinfectant

Ag proteinate Mild (Argyrol) Antiseptic for eye (nlt 19 nmt 23%) Strong (Protargol) Ear and throat (nlt 7.5 nmt 8.5%) Colloidal (Collargol) General germicide

C. GOLD (Aurum”, Shining dawn, King of all metals, Purple of Cassibis) o Most malleable and ductile, Best conductor of electricity o Dimercaprol

o Dissolved by:

 Aqua regia (3 part HCl + 1 part HNO3)

 Selenic acid

1. Aurothioglucose (IM) - treatment of gout and R.A 2. Gold Na Thiomalate (IM) - treatment of gout and R.A 3. Auranofin (PO) - AE: glossitis

Gold preparations are used as Disease Modifying

Anti-Rheumatic Drugs (DMARDs) for Rheumatoid

GROUP IIA: ALKALINE EARTH METALS

A. BERYLLIUM

o Never employed in medicine because it is the most toxic metal B. MAGNESIUM

o Lightest of all structurally important metal o 2nd

most abundant intracellular cation o Chlorophyll component

o Compound of Grignard’s reagent o Natural Sources:

1. As silicates (talc, asbestos) 2. As CO3 (magnesite, dolomite)

3. As SO4 (kieserite)

o Pcol action:

1. Laxative (PO) 2. Depressant

3. Natural Ca-channel blocker (anticonvulsant – IM) o Antidote: Ca gluconate

MgCO3

Magnesium carbonate

Magnesia Antacid, Laxative

Mg(OH)2

Milk of magnesia

Magnesia magma Antacid, Laxative

MgO Calcined magnesia Antacid, Laxative

Component of universal antidote 2MgO • 3SiO2 Mg trisilicate Antacid (Adv: prolonged action)

MgSO4

Epsom salt Bitter salt (Ref or dissolve in cold water)

Cathartic (PO) Anticonvulsant (IM)

Antidote for Ba andbarbituratetoxicity Mg3(C6H5O7)2 Lemonade purganti Purgative lemon Hydrated Mg Silicate Talc Soapstone French chalk Filtering agent Clarifying agent Dusting powder Mg3(Si2O5)(OH)4 Asbestos

C. CALCIUM o 2nd

most abundant cation in extracellular fluid o Vit. D is needed for its maximum absorption o PTH controls Ca levels in the blood

o Pcol action:

1. Coagulation 2. Contraction

3. Release of neurotransmitter 4. Bones and teeth (98-99%) o Deficiency states:

Osteoporosis (density)Osteomalacia(resorption)Rickets (mineralization)Hypocalcemia

CaBr2 Sedative/depressant CaCO3 Precipitated Chalk Carbonic Acid Calcium Salt Creta Praecipitata

Antacid, Ingredient of toothpaste, dentrifices

CaCl2

Muriate of lime

Fosforo de Homberg Ca replenisher

Ca gluconate Ca supplement and replenisher, Heart failure Ca(OH)2

Slaked lime Milk of lime Calcium hydrate

Antacid, Saponifying agent Ca(C3H5O3)2 Ca lactate Ca supplement

CaHPO4 • 2H2O Source of Ca and PO4

CaO lime, quicklime, calx Component of Bordeux mixture, Insecticide Ca3(PO4)2 Bone ash Antacid

CaClO Chlorinated lime

Chloride of lime Disinfectant, Bleaching agent CaSO4 • ½ H2O or 2 H2O Gypsum Terra alba Satin Spar Alabaster Light

Rodenticide, Prep of surgical casts and dental impressions

Plaster of Paris – calcium sulfate hemihydrate D. STRONTIUM

1. SrCl2 - Temperature desensitizing agent (Sensodyne®)

E. BARIUM (Heavy)

o Baritosis | Epsom salt

1. BaSO4 Ba meal, Esophotrast - radiopaque for GIT imaging (non-toxic since not soluble)

2. Ba(OH)2 Baryte - CO2 absorbent

F. RADIUM

o Radioactive element used for cancer radiotherapy & diagnostic purpose

GROUP IIB: VOLATILE METAL

A. ZINC

o Present in inZulin and carbonic anhydraZe o Astringent, Antiseptic, Antiperspirant, Protectant o Parakeratosis

o Metal Fume Fever | NaHCO3

ZnCl2

Butter of Zinc

Burnette’s disinfectant liquid

Disinfectant/antiseptic, Dentin desensitizer, Corrosive

Escharotic, more caustic than astringent

ZnO

Zinc white Lassar’s paste Flores de Zinc

Lana o Algodon Flioficos

Antiseptic, astringent, topical protectant

ZnO2 Antiseptic

ZnS White lotion

White sulfide Parasiticide, topical protectant, antiseptic ZnSO4 • 7 H2O White Vitriol

Emetic, ophthalmic astringent in 0.25% sol’n Pharmaceutical necessity in white lotion Hydrated Zn Silicate Natural Calamine Topical protectant

Zinc-Eugenol cement Dental protective

B. CADMIUM

o Astringent, manufacture of stink bomb o Itai-Itai | BAL

1. CdCl2 - emetic, treatment of Tinea infection

2. CdS (yellow sulfide) - anti-seborrheic 3. CdSO4 - ophthalmic antiseptic

C. MERCURY (Quicksilver, Messenger of the Gods)

o Diuretic, Antiseptic, Treatment of syphilis, Cathartic, Parasiticidal/fungicidal o Thermometer, amalgams (dental cement)

o Minamata | EDTA

1. Hg2Cl2 Mercurous chloride (Calomel) - cathartic, local antiseptic

2. HgCl2 Mercuric chloride (Corrosive sublimate) - disinfectant

3. HgI - treatment of syphilis

4. HgI2 - stimulant of indolent ulcers

5. K2HgI4 Potassium Mercuric Iodide - antiseptic, component of Mayer’s reagent

6. HgNH2Cl White precipitate - topical antiseptic

GROUP IIIA

A. BORON

o Industrial use: In vulcanizing rubber

1. H3BO3 (Sal sativum, Boracic acid, Hydrogen borate, orthoboric acid)

 Lobster appearance

 1. Buffer (ophthalmic solution 2%) 2. Antiseptic

3. Tonicity adjusting agent (isotonic can still cause hemolysis)

2. Na2B4O7 • 10H2O (Borax, Na tetraborate, Dobell solution, Na pyroborate, Tinkal)

 Antiseptic, Eye wash, Wet dressing for wounds B. ALUMINUM

o Most abundant metal o 3rd

most abundant element

o Astringent, Aluminum foils used for burn patients

AlCl3 • 6 H2O Astringent, Antiseptic, Antiperspirant

AlNH4(SO4)2 •12H2O

AlK(SO4)2 •12H2O

Alum Astringent, Antiperspirant

Al(OH)3 Amphogel, Cremalin gel

Antacid, Protectant

(D/A: Constipation and PO4 deficiency)

AlPO4 Phosphagel

Antacid, astringent, demulcent (A: doesn’t inferfere PO4 abs.)

Al2(CO3)3 Treatment of phosphatic calculi

Al2O3 Alumina Treatment of silicosis

Al2(SO4)3 Cake/Pickle/Pearl/Papermaker's Alum

Al Acetate Burrow's Solution

Kaolin China clay

Native hydrated aluminum silicate Adsorbent in diarrhea Bentonite Soap clay, Mineral Soap

Native colloidal hydrated aluminum silicate Suspending agent Pumice Pumice stone, Piedra Pomez Dental abrasive

C. GALLIUM

o Pcol use: treatment of cancer-related hypercalcemia by binding with transferring o Nonpharma: substitute for mercury in manufacture of arc lamps; Galvanized iron

GROUP IVA

A. CARBON

o Crystalline: Diamond (purest native form) and Graphite (lead pencil) o Amorphous: Coal and Anthracite

1. CO2 - acne, warts, corns, calluses, eczema, persistent hiccups (most potent resp. stimulant)

2. CO3 - Antacid, pharmaceutical for effervescent tablet

3. CO - 210x greater affinity to hemoglobin than oxygen leading to asphyxia then death - Targets cytochrome oxidase

- Pathogonomic of CO poisoning: Cherry red color of blood and mucous membranes Treatment:

1. 100% O2

2. Artificial air (He 80%, O2 20%)

3. Hyperbaric O2

B. SILICON o 2nd

most abundant element, Component of glass

1. SiO2 - Toxicity: silicosis

2. Glass Sodium silicate, Na4SiO4 - Na2CO3 + pure silica

3. Purified Siliceous Earth - Adsorbent

4. Kaolin Native hydrated aluminum silicate - Adsorbent 5. Bentonite Native colloidal hydrated aluminum silicate - Suspending agent 6. Talc French Chalk, Piedra Grasa, Soapstone, Creta Gallica - Clarifying, dusting 7. Attapulgite Polymagma, Diatabs, Quintess - Adsorbent 8. Simethicone Polymeric dimethyl siloxane - Antiflatulent 9. Asbestos

C. TIN (Stannum)

1. SnF2 - anticariogenic 8% solution

2. SnO2 - germicide for Staph infection

D. LEAD (Plumbum)

o Astringent, Protein Precipitant

o Plumbism | EDTA , Ca Versenate (adults) , Succimer (kids)

1. Pb(CH3COO)2 Sugar of Lead, Burrow’s sol’n - astringent

2. Pb2(CH3COO) Goulard’s extract - astringent, antiseptic

3. PbO Litharge® - cans (toxic)

GROUP IVB

A. TITANIUM (Titan, Sons of the Earth) o Powerful reducing agent

1. TiO2 - Opacifying agent (Ocusert®) and UV ray protectant

B. ZIRCONIUM

o antiperspirant but banned due to granuloma formation

I – borosilicate II – treated SL III – soda lime NP – gen. SL B – coeff of expansion K – brown Pb – ↑refractive index Silicates of: Mg (talc, asb) Al (k, b, p) Zn (calamine)

GROUP VA

A. NITROGEN (Mephitic air, azote, without life) o Most abundant gas in air: 71% N2, 29% O2 N2

Cont: BLACK

Azote INERT ATMOSPHERE

Liquid nitrogen – refrigerant N2O

Cont: BLUE

Laughing Gas, Nitrogen monoxide, Dinitrogen monoxide

Inhalational anesthetic (general) SE: diffusion hypoxia

NO2 Nitrite Vasodilator, For CN poisoning

NO3 Nitrate Preservative

HNO3 Spirit of Nitre, Aqua Fortis/Fuerte/Eau Forte

B. PHOSPHORUS (light carrier, St. Elmo’s Fire)

o White/yellow (poisonous), Red (non-poisonous) o CuSO4

1. PO4 - antacid, cathartic

2. H3PO4 (Orthophosphoric Acid)

3. HPH2O2 - antioxidant

C. ARSENIC (Lewisite Metal) o Protoplasmic poison

o Insecticide: Copper Aceto Arsenate (Paris green)

o Mee’s Line | BAL (British Anti Lewisite)

o First anti-syphilis (Paul Ehrlich) – Arsphenamine/Salvarsan/Magic bullet/Compound 606

1. As2O3 - Insecticide, Anti-leukemic

2. AsI3 - Primary standard in the preparation of cerric sulfate

3. K arsenite Fowler’s solution - antileukemic D. ANTIMONY

1. Na stibogluconate - Leishmaniasis

2. SbKOC4H4O6 Tartar emetic, Brown mixture - Schistosomiasis; emetic

E. BISMUTH (Beautiful Meadow)

o Astringent, Antiseptic, Internal protective for ulcer, Used in silvering of mirror o Dark stool, Blue-black gums | Dimercaprol

1. Bi Subcarbonate, Subgallate, Subnitrate - Antacid, Astringent, Antiseptic

2. Milk of Bi (Bismuth Cream) Bi subnitrate + Bi OH - Antacid, Internal protective, Inhibits H. pylori

GROUP VB

A. TANTALUM

o Not affected by any body fluid, Sheet form used in repair of bones, nerve and tissue Allotropes of P:

 Scarlet - tribromide ∆240°C with Hg

 Violet - white ∆200°C with Na

 Metallic/Black - 530° with Pb

 Red - white + chromic acid

Cyanide (CN) - MOA: inhibits cytochrome oxidase (ETC) Source: cassava, Na nitroprusside

Treatment:

1. NaNO2/Amylnitrite MOA: methemoglobinemia

2. Sodium thiosulfate MOA: CN to thiocyanate

GROUP VIA: CHALCOGENS

A. OXYGEN (Empyreal air, Dephlogisticated air, Yne, Aire Vital, Fire Air, Aire Puro) o Most abundant element, discovered by Scheele

o Uses:

1. Treatment of hypoxia/asphyxia

2. Oxidative metabolism for the production of energy 3. Final e- acceptor in ETC

o Container: GREEN

Carbon Dioxide (Carbonic Acid Gas, Carbonic Anhydride)

 Container: GRAY

 Solid Carbon Dioxide or “Dry Ice” - refrigerant

B. SULFUR (Brimstone, Shubari, Enemy of Copper)

o Antifungal, Parasiticide, Scabicide, Depilatory agent

H2SO4

Oil of Vitriol Vitrilic Acid

Aceitede de Vitriolo

Dehydrating agent in Pyroxylin

Nordhausen acid – Fuming H2SO4

Sulfur Dioxide Sulfurous Anhydride Antioxidant

Sublimed Sulfur (condensed sulfur vapors) Flower of Sulfur Asufre, Rhombic S

Cathartic

+ Lime  Vleminckx’s solution

Precipitated Sulfur (sulfur + metal hydroxides) Milk of Sulfur Prepared by mixing Sulfurated Potash (K polysulfides + K thiosulfate) Liver of Sulfur Psoriasis, Parasiticide

White lotion (ZnS)

C. SELENIUM (Selena, Moon) - Promotes Vit. E absorption, Antioxidant (SeS2 /Selsun blue – anti-dandruff)

GROUP VIB

A. CHROMIUM (Glucose tolerance factor) - hyperglycemia (K2Cr2O7 - powerful oxidizing agent)

B. MOLYBDENUM - Co-factor enzyme (Molybdenum Oxide + FeSO4 – hematinic)

C. URANIUM - Becquerel, Atomic bombs

Oxygen Requirement:

1. Anoxic - inadequate O2 tension in air 2. Anemic - lack of O2 carrier in heme 3. Stagnant - blood circulation is retarded 4. Histotoxic - cell defect interference of

GROUP VIIA: HALOGENS (Salt-forming group)

A. FLUORINE

o Strongest oxidizing agent

o Fluorosis (Mottled enamel, Abnormal bone growth) 1. NaF - anticariogenic at 2% solution 2. SnF2 - anticariogenic at 8% solution

3. Na2FPO3 - anticariogenic

4. CCl2F2 - refrigerant, aerosol propellant (Freon®)

B. CHLORINE (Dephlogisticated muriatic acid)

o Most abundant extracellular anion, green gas o Used as water disinfectant

1. Hypochlorite (Na, K) - bleaching agent

2. HCl (Muriatic acid, Spirit of Sea Salt, Marine Acid, Espiritu de Sal Marine) - treatment of achlorhydria

C. BROMINE

o Dark reddish brown fuming liquid with suffocating odor o Sedative/depressant

o Brominism (Skin eruption, Psychosis, Weakness, Headache) | NaCl and NH4Cl

D. IODINE

o Oldest known germicide o Expectorant, Antifungal o Preparation of T3 and T4 o Deficiency: Goiter

o Elemental Iodine preparation:

1. Strong Iodine Solution (Lugol’s Solution) - 5%

2. Iodine Solution - 2%

3. Iodine Tincture - 2% with 50% alcohol

4. Povidone-Iodine (Betadine®) - PVP (nonionic surfactant) E. ASTATINE

o Only metallic

o Only synthetic halogen o Only radioactive halogen

GROUP VIIB

A. MANGANESE

o Co-factor in:

1. Protein synthesis 2. Phosphorylation

3. Fatty acid and cholesterol synthesis

o Poisoning: Parkinson-like symptoms (resting tremors)

1. KMnO4 (Mineral Chameleon) - oxidizing agent, antiseptic

B. TECHNETIUM (Technetos) o 1st

element produced artificially

o Used in preparation of radiopharmaceuticals

RADIOPHARMACEUTICALS 1. Tc99m-Phytate Liver imaging & potency studies

2. Tc99m-heptagluconate Kidney imaging, determine renal function 3. Tc99m-IDA Hepatobiliary studies

4. Tc99m-Etidronate Bone imaging

5. I-131-Human Serum Albumin Blood plasma volume/cardiac output determination

6. NaI-125 Thyroid function

7. Sodium Phosphate Serum Localization of ocular tumors, polycythemia vera 8. Sodium Chromate Cr 51 RBC mass, volume, survival time, scanning of spleen 9. Gold Au 198 Scintillation scanning of the liver

10. Chlormerodin Hg 197/203 Scintillation scanning of the kidneys or the brain

1 Alpha particles (a 42He2+)

 heaviest and slowest of all radioactive emissions (0.1 the speed of light)

 penetrating power is very low and can be stopped by a sheet of paper or a very thin sheet of Al

 usually emitted only from elements having atomic numbers greater than 82 2 Beta particles (B or B+)

 negatively charged species having a mass of an electron

 move at a faster velocity (0.9 the speed of light)

 their emissions from elements do not alter the mass number but do alter the atomic number

 more penetrating power and able to travel 10 to 15 cm in water or penetrate almost 1 inch thickness of Al

 sometimes called negatrons

 emitted by unstable nuclei having neutrons in excess of protons 3 Gamma Radiation (t)

 photon of electromagnetic radiation

 demonstrates both wave and particle properties as do electrons and beta particles

 short wavelength similar to x-rays and travel at the speed of light

 no mass and no charge

GROUP VIIIA: NOBLE GASES

A. HELIUM o 2nd lightest gas o Donald-duck-like sound o Use:

1. Carrier/diluents of medically important gases 2. Component of artificial gas

o Container:BROWN B. NEON

o For advertising C. ARGON

o Most Abundant noble gas

o Substitute for N2 in providing inert atmosphere; Container: RED (Argon methane)

o By-product of fractionalization of liquid air

D. KRYPTON

o Least abundant of all noble gases o Have inhalational anesthetic activity

E. XENON

o Investigational with inhalatory anesthetic activity

F. RADON (Niton)

o Synthetic noble gas

GROUP VIIIB

A. IRON

o Present in proteins: 1. Hemoglobin 2. Transferrin

3. Ferritin – storage form of iron 4. Cytochrome oxidase

o Enhance absorption of 1. Vit C

2. Copper

o Most important element in engineering o Use: hematinic

o Toxicity:

1. GIT distress 2. Cardiac collapse o Antidote: Dexferroxamine

1. FeSO4 (Iron Sulfate, Copperas, Green Vitriol, Iron Vitriol) - Hematinic, SE: constipation, tarry stool

2. Ferrous gluconate - Fergon®, Advantage: less irritating

3. Ferrous fumarate - Toleron®

4. FeCO3 (Chalybeate pills, Ferruginous pills) - Hematinic

5. FeCl3 - Astringent, Styptic, tannin detection

6. Basham’s Mixture (Iron + NH4 acetate) - Astringent, Styptic 7. Fe4*Fe(CN)6+3 (Ferriferrocyanide or Prussian blue)

8. Fe3*Fe(CN)6+2 (Ferroferricyanide or Turnbull’s blue)

B. COBALT

o Essential in development of erythrocyte and hemoglobin o Component of Vit. B12 (cyanocobalamin)

o Deficiency: Megaloblastic anemia and Pernicious anemia

1. CoCl2 Lover’s ink, sympathetic ink - dessicator indicator

2. Cobalt zincate Rinmann’s Green - test for Zn ion 3. Cobalt meta-aluminate Thenard’s blue - test for Al ion C. NICKEL (Old nick’s copper)

o Fossil fuel, fancy jewelries D. OSMIUM

o Heaviest/densest metal

1. Osmic acid and Osmium tetroxide

Both used in staining microorganism for microscopic study especially electron microscopy. E. PLATINUM - Catalyst in finely divided steel

F. PALLADIUM - Catalyst in finely divided steel

Metals present in cytochrome oxidase:

1. Fe 2. Cu

Iron toxicity: Hemochromatosis/Hemosiderosis (Prussian blue stain of the heart)

BUFFERS

o pair or related chemical compounds capable of resisting large change in the pH of a solution o composed of a weak acid & its salt (conjugate base) or a weak base & its salt (conjugate acid) Phosphate Buffer System

 𝐷𝑖𝑕𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 + 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑕𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑕𝑜𝑠𝑝𝑕𝑎𝑡𝑒

 D/A; insolubility of the phosphate salts of metals such as Ag, Zn, and Al and phosphate salt of growth

 Sorensen Phosphate buffer system – for ophthalmic (isotonic with body fluids) Borate Buffer System

 used in preparations containing metals that would otherwise precipitate in the presence of phosphate

 CI in parenterals bec of toxicity of borates

3 Primary Borate Buffer System presently recognized:

1 Feldman’s Buffer System (pH 7-8.2) - boric acid + NaCl, sodium borate 2 Gifford Buffer System (6-7.8) - boric acid + KCl, sodium borate 3 Atkins and Pantin Buffer System (7.6-11) - boric acid + NaCl, sodium carbonate

__________________________________________________________________________________________________ (a) Intracellular fluid (K, Mg, PO4)

(b) Extracellular fluid: (Na, Cl)

 interstitial fluid

 plasma and vascular fluid

__________________________________________________________________________________________________ Buffer systems that the body utilize:

1. Bicarbonate/Carbonic Acid (HCO3-/H2Co3) - plasma and kidneys

2. Monohydrogen phosphate (HPO42-/H2PO4-) - cells and kidneys

3. Hemoglobin and proteins - red blood cells Acidosis – below 7.38

Alkalosis – above 7.42

COMPENSATORY MECHANISM OF THE BODY

Conditions Causes Buffer System

Metabolic Acidosis HCO3 deficit (diabetic acidosis, diarrhea, renal failure) HCO3-/H2Co3

Metabolic Alkalosis HCO3 excess (administration of excess alkali, vomiting) HCO3-/H2Co3

Respiratory Acidosis H2Co3 excess (cardiac disease, lung damage, drowing) Hemoglobin and protein

Respiratory Alkalosis H2CO3 deficit (fever, anoxia, hysteria, salicylate poisoning) HCO3-/H2Co3

Metabolic acidosis – treated with the sodium salts of bicarbonate, lactate, acetate, and citrate

Electrolyte Combination Therapy 1. Fluid Maintenance

 to supply normal regrement for water and electrolytes to those who cannot take them orally

 should contain at least 5% dextrose to minimize the build-up of metabolites associated with starvation (urea, phosphate and ketone bodies)

 general electrolyte composition: Na, Cl, HCO3, Mg & P ions

2. Electrolyte Replacement

 needed when there is a heavy loss of water and electrolyte Official Combination Electrolyte Infusions

Ringer’s Injection – 8.6 g NaCl, 0.3 g KCl and 0.33 g Ca Chloride per liter

Lactated Ringer’s Injection – 600 mg NaCl, 30 mg KCl & 20 mg Ca and 310 mg Na lactate per 100 ml Oral electrolyte solutions – to supply water and electrolyte in amount needed for maintenance

– given to replace mild to moderate fluid loss

__________________________________________________________________________________________________ ESSENTIAL AND TRACE IONS

Essential – not synthesized by the body and must be included in the diet

Trace – required for normal functioning but does not need to be included in the diet

Ions Principal Metabolic Functions Clinical Manifestations of Deficiency Iron (Fe2+ or Fe3+) Constituent of hemoglobin Anemia

Iodine (I-) Constituent of thyroxin and triiodothyronine Endemic (simple) goiter Cretinism

Cobalt (Co2+) Constituent of Vit. B12 (cyanocobalamin)

Deficiency of Vit. B12 Pernicious anemia Polycythemia Zinc (Zn2+) Constituent of insulin and carbonic anhydrase

Anemia

Stunted growth Hypogonadism Copper (Cu2+) Formation of hemoglobin (increases iron utilization)

Constituent of oxidase enzymes

Hypochromic anemia Wilson’s disease Sulfur (S2-) Constituent of proteins mucopolsaccharides,

heparin, biotin, detoxication

Cystinuria

Cystine renal calculi Iron – electron carrier in respiration chain; responsible for transport of molecular oxygen

Body Components Containing Iron

Occurrence Iron bound as Mode of Linkage Functions

Blood System 1 hemoglobin Heme Oxygen Transport

2 plasma Transferrin Iron Transport

Tissues 1 Functional Iron (myoglobin, cell hemes Heme Cell respiration

2 Storage Iron a. ferritin

GASTROINTESTINAL AGENTS

Inorganic agents used to treat gastrointestinal disorders include: 1 antacids - products for altering gastric pH

2 protectives for intestinal inflammation 3 adsorbents for intestinal toxins 4 cathartics or laxatives for constipation Stomach pH: 1 when empty to 7 when food is present

Gastritis – specified circumscribed erosion

Peptic ulcer or Esophageal ulcer (heartburn) occurs when the esophageal sphincter is defective due to gastric food entering the

esophagus during a belch or upon lying in bed; emotional makeup is also a factor. Malignancy and hemorrhage are common with

gastric ulcers. Perforation is more common with duodenal ulcers.

Antacids - alkaline bases used to neutralize the excess gastric HCl associated with gastritis and peptic ulcers a. should not be absorbable or cause systemic alkalosis

b. should not be a laxative or cause constipation

c. should exert the effect rapidly and over a long period of time d. reaction with gastric HCl should not cause a large evolution of gas e. should buffer in the pH 4-6 range

f. should probably inhibit pepsin COMBINATION ANTACID PREPARATIONS

a. Aluminum Hydroxide Gel-Magnesium Hydroxide (Aludrox, Wingel, Maalox, Creamalin) b. Aluminum Hydroxide Gel-Magnesium Trisilicate (Gelusil, Tricreamalate, Triosgel) c. Magaldrate – Aluminum Hydroxide & Magnesium Hydroxide (Riopan)

d. Simethicone-Containing Antacids (Di-gel, Mylanta, Kremil-S) – simethicone - defoaming agent e. Aliginic Acid-Sodium Bicarbonate-Containing Antacids (Gaviscon, Fomtab)

PROTECTIVES AND ADSORBENTS – mild diarrhea

Diarrhea - when some factor impairs digestion and/or adsoprtion, thereby increasing bulk of intestinal tract Acute Diarrhea - caused by bacterial toxins, chemical poisons, drugs, allergy and disease

Chronic Diarrhea - from GI surgery, carcinomas, chronic inflammatory conditions & various adsorptive defects).

BISMUTH-CONTAINING PRODUCTS

 intestinal hydrogen sulfate acts upon bismuth salts to form bismuth sulfate (result: black stools) SALINE CATHARTICS (purgatives)

o Laxatives – mild cathartics, prolonged use causes “Laxative habit” 1. Stimulant Laxatives – act by local irritation

2. Bulk-forming Laxatives – from cellulose and other non-digestible polysaccharides which swell when wet 3. Emollient Laxatives – lubricants or stool softeners (e.g. Mineral Oil)

4. Saline Cathartics – increase osmotic load of GI tract NON-OFFICIAL SALINE CATHARTICS

Sodium Sulfate (Glauber's Salt)

Potassium Phosphate (Dibasic Potassium Phosphate, Dipotassium Hydrogen Phosphate, DKP) Potassium Bitartrate (Cream of Tartar, Potassium Acid Tartrate, Potassium Hydrogen Tartrate) Calomel (Mercurous Chloride, Mild Mercury Chloride)

FLAME TEST

METALS Non-luminous flame Under cobalt glass

Sodium persistent golden yellow nil

Potassium violet crimson

Lithium carmine red purple

Calcium brick red light green

Strontium crimson purple

Barium yellowish green bluish-green

Borate, Cu, Tl, P green

Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Cu blue yellow

Ammonium colorless

GROUPS OF ANION

Group No. - Member Precipitate Formed and Visual Result

with 1 M AgNO3 + 6 M HNO3 with 1 M BaCl2 + HNO3

I – Cl, Br I AgCl *white+

AgBr *cream+ AgI *yellow+ insoluble in HNO3

No ppt

II – NO2-, S-2, C2H3O4-(acetate) AgS *black+

soluble in HNO3, NO2 and C2H3O2 *no ppt+

No ppt

III – SO3, CO3-2, C2O4-2 White ppt soluble in HNO3 White ppt of BaSO4, CaSO4, BaC2O4

soluble in HNO3

IV – PO3-3, AsO4-3, CrO4-2 Ag3PO4 *yellow+

Ag3AsO4 *brown+

Ag2CrO4 *red+

all ppt soluble in HNO3

BaCrO4 *yellow+

Ba3(AsO4)2 *white+

all ppt soluble in HNO3

V – NO3-, ClO- No ppt No ppt

GROUPS OF CATION

GROUP OF CATION

CATION

COLOR OF

PPT

ADD’TL

I (Insoluble chloride)

Pb+2

White

Yellow ppt with K2Cr2O7

Hg+2

White

Black ppt

with NH3

Mercuric ion:

Yellow ppt with NaOH

Scarlet ppt

with excess KI

Ag+2

White

White ppt with HNO3, soluble in

NH4OH

II (Acid insoluble sulfide)

A. Insoluble in acid and

base

Hg

+

Black

Bi

+3

Brown

Cu

+2

Black

Reddish brown

ppt with K ferroCN

Blue

in solution

Cd

+2

Yellow

B. Insoluble in acid

As

+3

Yellow

As

+5

Yellow

Sb

+

Orange

In the presence of HCl, gives a

violet

ppt

with rhodamine B (a pink dye)

Sn

Yellow

III (Base insoluble sulfides)

Fe

Brown

Al

White

(+) Thenard’s blue

Cr

Gray green

Ni

Black

Green in solution

Co

Black

(+) Vogel test

Mn

Pink

Zn

white

(+) Rinmann’s Green

IV (Sulfate insoluble groups)

Ba

White

Ca

White

Sr

White

V (Soluble group/Alkali

metals)

Mg

Na

Yellow ppt with cobalt uranyl acetate

K

White ppt with Na bitartrate

NH4

Alkalinized vapour turns red litmus paper to blue

METAL OR ANION COLOR REACTIONS Acetate (CH3COO- or

C2H3O2-)

H2SO4 + Ethanol (CH3C2OH)  fruity odor (ethyl acetate)

Aluminum (Al) + Ammonium TS  gelatinous ppt that dissolves in excess Ammonium TS + Aluminon reagent red lake

Ammonium

thiocyanate (NH4SCN)

+ cobalt solution (acidic) intense blue colored complex at interface + Ferric salts blood red Fe(SCN)3 (ferric thiocyanate)

Arsenate (AsO43-) + Silver nitrate TS chocolate brown soluble in HNO3

+ Ammonium molybdate test yellow ppt

Arsenites (AsO33-) + Silver nitrate TS yellow ppt soluble in HNO3

+ Magnesia mixture differentiating test for arsenates & arsenites Borates (BO33-) + H2SO4 + methanol (CH3OH) green bordered flame

+ Turmeric paper orange +NaOH  olive green Bromine (Br) + CCl4 (carbon tetrachloride) Orange color

Carbonate (CO32-) + acidic aqueous solution effervescence

+ Phenolphthalein red

Chloride (Cl) + AgNO3 white curdy ppt, soluble in NH3, insol in HNO3

Citrate (C6H5O73-) +pyridine + acetic anhydride

(3:1)/Denige’s reagent

carmine red

*Denige’s test is the differentiating test between citrates and tartrates

Chromium + NaOH grayish green slug, which dissolves with excess reagent Cobalt + NaOH blue ppt of Co(OH)2 (boiling) olive green rose green

+ potassium nitrate (KNO2) + acetic acid yellow ppt

+ α-nitro-β-naphthol brown ppt soluble in HCl Copper + Fe + HCl deposit of red film on iron

+ potassium ferrocyanide green ppt forming a blue solution with ammonia Iodide + Chlorine water or KMnO4 solution violet color

+ H2SO4 + sodium bisulfite(cold) decolorized

+ H2SO4 + oxalic acid (hot) decolorized

Nickel + dimethylglyoxime bright red crystalline ppt insoluble in NH3

+ α-nitro-β-naphthol reddish brown ppt soluble in HCl Phosphate (PO43-) + Silver nitrate yellow ppt

+ Ammonium molybdate yellow ppt in HNO3 and NH3

Potassium (K) + Tartaric acid white crystals of potassium bitartrate insoluble in ethanol and glacial acetic acid but soluble in NaOH *Potassium bitartrate is the only insoluble compound of potassium

Saccharin Fluorescin test: Resorcinol + H2SO4 +

excess NaOH

fluorescent green liquid Salicylate + Ferric chloride (FeCl3) violet color

+ Acids white ppt of salicylic acid

Silver (Ag) + HCl white curdy ppt insoluble in HNO3 but soluble in NH3

Tartrate + Pyridine + acetic anhydride (3:1) emerald green

Thiosulfate (S2O32-) + HCl white ppt turning yellow

+ FeCl3 dark violet which quickly disappears

COMMON NAMES CHEMICAL NAME FORMULA

Alcohol, grain ethyl alcohol or ethanol C2H5OH

Alcohol, wood methyl alcohol or methanol CH3OH

Alum potassium aluminum sulfate K2SO4 · Al(SO4)3 · 24H2O

Ammonia water ammonium hydroxide solution NH4OH

Agua Fortis concentrated nitric acid HNO3

Agua Regia conc. nitric acid and conc. hydrochloric acid HNO3 / 3HCl

Baking soda sodium bicarbonate NaHCO3

Baryte barium hydroxide Ba(OH)2

Bauxite impure aluminum oxide Al2O3

Benzol benzene C6H6

Bleaching powder calcium oxychloride or chloride of lime CaOCl2

Blue vitriol copper sulfate CuSO4 · 5 H2O

Borax sodium tetraborate Na2B4O7 · 10 H2O

Brimstone sulfur S

Brine sodium chloride solution NaCl

Calomel mercurous chloride Hg2Cl2

Cane sugar sucrose C12H22O11

Carbolic acid phenol C6H5OH

Carbona carbon tetrachloride CCl4

Carborundum silicon carbide SiC

Caustic potash potassium hydroxide KOH

Chalk calcium carbonate CaCO3

Chile saltpeter sodium nitrate NaNO3

Chloroform trichloromethane CHCl3

Cinnabar impure merciruc sulfide HgS

Corrosive sublimate mercuric chloride HgCl2

Cream of tartar potassium bitartrate KHC4H4O6

Cryolite sodium aluminum fluoride Na3AlF6

Deuterium oxide heavy water D2O

Dry ice solid carbon dioxide CO2

Epsom salts magnesium sulfate MgSO4 · 7 H2O

COMMON NAMES CHEMICAL NAME FORMULA

Galena lead sulfide PbS

Glauber's salt sodium sulfate decahydrate Na2SO4 · 10 H2O

Gypsum dihydrated calcium sulfate CaSO4 · 2 H2O

Hematite ferric oxide Fe2O3

Iodoform triiodomethane CHI3

Laughing gas nitrous oxide N2O

Limestone calcium carbonate CaCO3

Limewater calcium hydroxide solution Ca(OH)2

Litharge lead oxide PbO

Lunar caustic silver nitrate AgNO3

Lye sodium hydroxide NaOH

Marsh gas methane CH4

Milk of Magnesia magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2

Muriatic acid hydrochloric acid HCl Nitroglycerine glyceryl nitrate or glyceryl trinitrate C3H5(NO3)3

Oil of vitriol conc. sulfuric acid H2SO4

Phosgene carbonyl chloride COCl2

Plaster of Paris hydrated calcium sulfate (CaSO4)2 · H2O

Prussian blue ferric ferrocyanide Fe4*Fe(CN)6+3

Prussic acid hydrocyanic acid HCN

Pyrite iron sulfide FeS2

Quicklime calcium oxide CaO

Quicksilver mercury Hg

Rochelle salt sodium potassium tartrate NaKC4H4O6

Sal ammoniac ammonium chloride NH4Cl

Salt (table) sodium chloride NaCl Saltpeter potassium nitrate KNO3

Sand silicon dioxide SiO2

Slaked lime calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2

Turnbull's blue ferrous ferricyanide Fe3*Fe(CN)6+2

Vinegar dilute acetic acid CH3COOH

Washing soda (sal soda) sodium carbonate Na2CO3 · 10 H2O

Water glass sodium silicate Na2SiO3

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

o branch of chemistry that deals with carbon-containing compounds with: H, O, P, N, S, X

Organic Compounds Simple Hydrocarbons Aliphatic Alkanes Alkenes Alkynes Aromatic Alicyclic/ Carbocyclic Hydrocarbon Derivatives X RX ArX N Amines 1° RNH2 2° R2NH 3° R3N 4° R4N+ ROCNH2 O ROH 1° RCH2OH 2° R2CHOH 3° R3COH ArOH ROR RCHO RCOR RCOOH RCOOR RCONH2 RCOOOCR Acid/Acyl Chloride S RSH RSR ArSH

Carbon

 Contains 4 binding sites for other atoms to attach to it

 These four binding sites, when bonded with other atoms/molecules form a tetrahedron

 Group 4, Period 2

 Atomic No. 6

o 1s2 2s2 2p2

o Needs 4 more electrons to complete its octet o Valence: 4

o Can only share: covalence SYSTEMS OF NOMENCLATURE

1. Common

 Uses the name given when it was discovered

 Formic acid – ants

 Butyric acid – butter

 Prefixes: n-, iso-, neo- 2. Derived

 Derived from parent compound 3. IUPAC

 Most systematic

No. of C atoms Prefix No. of C atoms Prefix

1 Meth 6 Hex

2 Eth 7 Hept

3 Prop 8 Oct

4 But 9 Non

ORGANIC MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY

• deals with the physicochemical properties of drugs that affect its biological action

• the practice of medicinal chemistry is devoted to the discovery and development of new drugs

ANTI-INFECTIVE AGENTS

• Joseph Lister – introduced phenol (carbolic acid)

• Paul Ehrlich – Salvarsan (compound 606), Selective toxicity • Atoxyl (sodium arsanilate and arsphenamine) – for sleeping sickness • Germicides – anti-infective agents that are used locally

Antisepsis • Apply to living tissue

Decontamination • Destruction or marked reduction in the number or activity of microorganisms Disinfection • On inanimate objects

Sanitation • Reduction to a level acceptable for public health Sterilization • Kills all types including spores

Pasteurization • Nonsporulating microorganisms (65:-100:C)

LOCAL ANTI-INFECTIVES OR GERMICIDES

ALCOHOLS AND RELATED COMPOUNDS

o activity ↑ with MW until C8 (octanol), Branching ↓ antibacterial potency

o As primary alcohol chain ↑, Van der Waals interactions ↑, ability to penetrate microbial membranes ↑ o As water solubility ↓, potency ↓ with MW

1. Alcohol, USP (Spiritus vini rectificatus, wine spirit, Grain alcohol)

 Fermentation product from grain and many other carbs, or sulfuric-acid-catalyzed hydration of ethylene

 Most widely abused of all recreational drugs

 Commercial: 95% ethanol (forms an azeotrope in water that distills at 78.2:C)

 Antidote: disulfiram blocks aldehyde dehydrogenase  acetaldehyde (nausea, vomiting, flushing)

Denatured - Completely denatured alcohol contains added methanol (wood alcohol) and benzene Rubbing (70%) - Astringent, rubefacient, refrigerant, mild local anesthetic

Dehydrated/Absolute - nlt 99% ethanol; obtained by azeotropic distillation

Isopropyl - Rapidly bactericidal (50% to 95%), 40% equal antiseptic power to a 60% ethanol 2. Ethylene Oxide

 Used to sterilize temp-sensitive medical equipment and those that could not be autoclaved

 Carboxide – 10% ethylene oxide + 90% CO2 (to prevent explosion)

 MOA : alkylation of functional groups in nucleic acids and proteins 3. Formaldehyde Solution (Formalin)

 nlt 37% of formaldehyde + methanol (retard polymerization to formic acid and paraformaldehyde)

 MOA : direct, nonspecific alkylation of nucleophilic functional groups 4. Glutarol/Glutaraldehyde (Cidex)