The GNU C Library:
Application Fundamentals
For GNU C Libraries version 2.3.x
by Sandra Loosemore
ISBN1-882114-22-1, First Printing, March 2004.
Published by:
GNU Press Website: www.gnupress.org
a division of the General: [email protected]
Free Software Foundation Orders: [email protected] 51 Franklin St, Fifth Floor Tel: 617-542-5942 Boston, MA 02110-1301 USA Fax: 617-542-2652
Copyright©1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004 Free Software Foundation
Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNUFree Documentation License, Version 1.2, or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with the Invariant Sections being “Free Software and Free Manuals”, the “GNU Free Documentation License”," and the “GNULesser General Public License”, with the Front Cover Texts being “A GNU
Manual”, and with the Back Cover Texts as in (a) below. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled “GNUFree Documentation License”.
(a) The Back Cover Text is: You are free to copy and modify this GNU Manual. Buying copies fromGNUPress supports theFSFin developingGNUand promoting software freedom.
i
Short Contents
1 Introduction
. . . .
12 Error Reporting
. . . .
173 Virtual Memory Allocation and Paging
. . . .
394 Character Handling
. . . .
795 String and Array Utilities
. . . .
896 Character-Set Handling
. . . .
1337 Locales and Internationalization
. . . .
1818 Mathematics
. . . .
2039 Arithmetic Functions
. . . .
24310 Date and Time
. . . .
27711 Message Translation
. . . .
31512 Searching and Sorting
. . . .
34313 Pattern Matching
. . . .
35514 The Basic Program/System Interface
. . . .
37915 Input/Output Overview
. . . .
42916 Debugging Support
. . . .
43517 Input/Output on Streams
. . . .
439A Summary of Library Facilities
. . . .
521B Contributors to the GNU C Library
. . . .
587C Free Software Needs Free Documentation
. . . .
591D GNU Lesser General Public License
. . . .
593E GNU Free Documentation License
. . . .
603Concept Index
. . . .
611Type Index
. . . .
617Function and Macro Index
. . . .
619Variable and Constant Macro Index
. . . .
629iii
Table of Contents
1
Introduction
. . . .
1
1.1 Getting Started. . . 1
1.2 Standards and Portability. . . 1
1.2.1 ISOC. . . 2
1.2.2 POSIX(The Portable Operating System Interface). . . 2
1.2.3 Berkeley Unix. . . 3
1.2.4 SVID(The System V Interface Description). . . 3
1.2.5 XPG(The X/Open Portability Guide). . . 4
1.3 Using the Library. . . 4
1.3.1 Header Files. . . 4
1.3.2 Macro Definitions of Functions. . . 5
1.3.3 Reserved Names. . . 6
1.3.4 Feature-Test Macros. . . 8
1.4 Road Map to the Manual. . . 12
2
Error Reporting
. . . .
17
2.1 Checking for Errors. . . 17
2.2 Error Codes. . . 18
2.3 Error Messages. . . 32
3
Virtual Memory Allocation and Paging
. . . .
39
3.1 Process Memory Concepts. . . 39
3.2 Allocating Storage for Program Data. . . 41
3.2.1 Memory Allocation in C Programs. . . 41
3.2.1.1 Dynamic Memory Allocation. . . 41
3.2.2 Unconstrained Allocation. . . 42
3.2.2.1 Basic Memory Allocation. . . 42
3.2.2.2 Examples ofmalloc. . . 43
3.2.2.3 Freeing Memory Allocated withmalloc. . . 44
3.2.2.4 Changing the Size of a Block. . . 45
3.2.2.5 Allocating Cleared Space. . . 46
3.2.2.6 Efficiency Considerations formalloc. . . 46
3.2.2.7 Allocating Aligned Memory Blocks. . . 47
3.2.2.8 mallocTunable Parameters. . . 47
3.2.2.9 Heap Consistency Checking. . . 48
3.2.2.10 Memory Allocation Hooks. . . 50
3.2.2.11 Statistics for Memory Allocation with malloc. . . 53
3.2.2.12 Summary ofmalloc-Related Functions. . 54
3.2.3 Allocation Debugging. . . 55
3.2.3.2 Example Program Excerpts. . . 56
3.2.3.3 Some More or Less Clever Ideas. . . 57
3.2.3.4 Interpreting the Traces. . . 58
3.2.4 Obstacks. . . 59
3.2.4.1 Creating Obstacks. . . 60
3.2.4.2 Preparing for Using Obstacks. . . 60
3.2.4.3 Allocation in an Obstack. . . 61
3.2.4.4 Freeing Objects in an Obstack. . . 63
3.2.4.5 Obstack Functions and Macros. . . 63
3.2.4.6 Growing Objects. . . 64
3.2.4.7 Extra-Fast Growing Objects. . . 66
3.2.4.8 Status of an Obstack. . . 67
3.2.4.9 Alignment of Data in Obstacks. . . 68
3.2.4.10 Obstack Chunks. . . 69
3.2.4.11 Summary of Obstack Functions. . . 69
3.2.5 Automatic Storage with Variable Size. . . 71
3.2.5.1 allocaExample. . . 72
3.2.5.2 Advantages ofalloca. . . 72
3.2.5.3 Disadvantages ofalloca. . . 73
3.2.5.4 GNUC Variable-Size Arrays. . . 73
3.3 Resizing the Data Segment. . . 74
3.4 Locking Pages. . . 74
3.4.1 Why Lock Pages?. . . 75
3.4.2 Locked-Memory Details. . . 75
3.4.3 Functions to Lock and Unlock Pages. . . 76
4
Character Handling
. . . .
79
4.1 Classification of Characters. . . 79
4.2 Case Conversion. . . 81
4.3 Character Class Determination for Wide Characters. . . 82
4.4 Notes on Using the Wide-Character Classes. . . 86
v
5
String and Array Utilities
. . . .
89
5.1 Representation of Strings. . . 89
5.2 String and Array Conventions. . . 91
5.3 String Length. . . 91
5.4 Copying and Concatenation. . . 93
5.5 String/Array Comparison. . . 105
5.6 Collation Functions. . . 109
5.7 Search Functions. . . .114
5.7.1 Compatibility String Search Functions. . . .119
5.8 Finding Tokens in a String. . . .119
5.9 strfry. . . .124
5.10 Trivial Encryption. . . 124
5.11 Encode Binary Data. . . .125
5.12 Argz and Envz Vectors. . . 127
5.12.1 Argz Functions. . . .127
5.12.2 Envz Functions. . . 130
6
Character-Set Handling
. . . .
133
6.1 Introduction to Extended Characters. . . 133
6.2 Overview About Character-Handling Functions. . . 137
6.3 Restartable Multibyte Conversion Functions. . . 137
6.3.1 Selecting the Conversion and Its Properties. . . 138
6.3.2 Representing the State of the Conversion. . . 139
6.3.3 Converting Single Characters. . . 140
6.3.4 Converting Multibyte- and Wide-Character Strings. . .147
6.3.5 A Complete Multibyte Conversion Example. . . 150
6.4 Nonreentrant Conversion Function. . . 152
6.4.1 Nonreentrant Conversion of Single Characters. . . 153
6.4.2 Nonreentrant Conversion of Strings. . . 154
6.4.3 States in Nonreentrant Functions. . . 155
6.5 Generic Charset Conversion. . . 157
6.5.1 Generic Character-Set Conversion Interface. . . 157
6.5.2 A CompleteiconvExample. . . 161
6.5.3 Some Details About OthericonvImplementations . . . 163
6.5.4 TheiconvImplementation in theGNUC Library. . . 165
6.5.4.1 Format of ‘gconv-modules’ Files. . . 166
6.5.4.2 Finding the Conversion Path iniconv. . . . 167
6.5.4.3 iconvModule Data Structures. . . 168
7
Locales and Internationalization
. . . .
181
7.1 What Effects a Locale Has. . . .181
7.2 Choosing a Locale. . . 182
7.3 Categories of Activities That Locales Affect. . . 182
7.4 How Programs Set the Locale. . . .183
7.5 Standard Locales. . . .185
7.6 Accessing Locale Information. . . 186
7.6.1 localeconv: “It is portable, but . . . ”. . . 186
7.6.1.1 Generic Numeric Formatting Parameters. . . 187
7.6.1.2 Printing the Currency Symbol. . . 188
7.6.1.3 Printing the Sign of a Monetary Amount. . . 190
7.6.2 Pinpoint Access to Locale Data. . . 191
7.7 A Dedicated Function to Format Numbers. . . 197
7.8 Yes-or-No Questions. . . 200
8
Mathematics
. . . .
203
8.1 Predefined Mathematical Constants. . . 203
8.2 Trigonometric Functions. . . 204
8.3 Inverse Trigonometric Functions. . . 206
8.4 Exponentiation and Logarithms. . . 207
8.5 Hyperbolic Functions. . . 212
8.6 Special Functions. . . 214
8.7 Known Maximum Errors in Math Functions. . . 216
8.8 Pseudorandom Numbers. . . 234
8.8.1 ISO C Random-Number Functions. . . .235
8.8.2 BSD Random-Number Functions. . . 235
8.8.3 SVID Random-Number Functions. . . 237
8.9 Is Fast Code or Small Code Preferred?. . . 242
9
Arithmetic Functions
. . . .
243
9.1 Integers. . . .243
9.2 Integer Division. . . .244
9.3 Floating-Point Numbers. . . 246
9.4 Floating-Point Number Classification Functions. . . 247
9.5 Errors in Floating-Point Calculations. . . 249
9.5.1 FP Exceptions. . . 249
9.5.2 Infinity and NaN. . . 250
9.5.3 Examining the FPU Status Word. . . 252
9.5.4 Error Reporting by Mathematical Functions. . . 253
9.6 Rounding Modes. . . .254
9.7 Floating-Point Control Functions. . . 256
9.8 Arithmetic Functions. . . 258
9.8.1 Absolute Value. . . 258
9.8.2 Normalization Functions. . . .259
vii
9.8.4 Remainder Functions. . . 262
9.8.5 Setting and Modifying Single Bits of FP Values. . . 263
9.8.6 Floating-Point Comparison Functions. . . 264
9.8.7 Miscellaneous FP Arithmetic Functions. . . 265
9.9 Complex Numbers. . . 266
9.10 Projections, Conjugates and Decomposing of Complex Numbers . . . 267
9.11 Parsing of Numbers. . . 268
9.11.1 Parsing of Integers. . . 268
9.11.2 Parsing of Floats. . . 273
9.12 Old-fashioned System V Number-to-String Functions. . . .275
10
Date and Time
. . . .
277
10.1 Time Basics. . . 277
10.2 Elapsed Time. . . 277
10.3 Processor andCPUTime. . . 279
10.3.1 CPUTime Inquiry. . . 280
10.3.2 Processor Time Inquiry. . . 281
10.4 Calendar Time. . . 282
10.4.1 Simple Calendar Time. . . 282
10.4.2 High-Resolution Calendar. . . 283
10.4.3 Broken-Down Time. . . 285
10.4.4 High-Accuracy Clock. . . 288
10.4.5 Formatting Calendar Time. . . 291
10.4.6 Convert Textual Time and Date Information Back. . .297
10.4.6.1 Interpret String According to Given Format . . . 297
10.4.6.2 A More User-Friendly Way to Parse Times and Dates. . . .303
10.4.7 Specifying the Time Zone withTZ. . . 306
10.4.8 Functions and Variables for Time Zones. . . 308
10.4.9 Time Functions Example. . . 309
10.5 Setting an Alarm. . . 310
11
Message Translation
. . . .
315
11.1 X/Open Message Catalog Handling. . . 315
11.1.1 ThecatgetsFunction Family. . . 316
11.1.2 Format of the Message Catalog Files. . . 319
11.1.3 Generate Message Catalogs Files. . . 321
11.1.4 How to Use thecatgetsInterface. . . 322
11.1.4.1 Not Using Symbolic Names. . . .322
11.1.4.2 Using Symbolic Names. . . 323
11.1.4.3 Using Symbolic Version Numbers. . . 324
11.2 The Uniforum Approach to Message Translation. . . 325
11.2.1 ThegettextFamily of Functions. . . 326
11.2.1.1 What Has to Be Done to Translate a Message? . . . 326
11.2.1.2 How to Determine Which Catalog to Use . . . 328
11.2.1.3 Additional Functions for More Complicated Situations. . . 330
11.2.1.4 How to Specify the Output Character Set That gettextUses. . . .335
11.2.1.5 How to UsegettextinGUIPrograms. . 336
11.2.1.6 User Influence ongettext. . . 338
11.2.2 Programs to Handle Message Catalogs forgettext . . . 341
12
Searching and Sorting
. . . .
343
12.1 Defining the Comparison Function. . . 343
12.2 Array Search Function. . . 343
12.3 Array Sort Function. . . .344
12.4 Searching and Sorting Example. . . .345
12.5 ThehsearchFunction. . . 348
12.6 ThetsearchFunction. . . 351
13
Pattern Matching
. . . .
355
13.1 Wildcard Matching. . . 355
13.2 Globbing. . . 357
13.2.1 Callingglob. . . 357
13.2.2 Flags for Globbing. . . 361
13.2.3 More Flags for Globbing. . . 362
13.3 Regular Expression Matching. . . 364
13.3.1 POSIXRegular Expression Compilation. . . 365
13.3.2 Flags forPOSIXRegular Expressions. . . .367
13.3.3 Matching a CompiledPOSIXRegular Expression. . . 367
13.3.4 Match Results with Subexpressions. . . 368
13.3.5 Complications in Subexpression Matching. . . .369
ix
13.4 Shell-Style Word Expansion. . . 370
13.4.1 The Stages of Word Expansion. . . 371
13.4.2 Callingwordexp. . . 371
13.4.3 Flags for Word Expansion. . . 373
13.4.4 wordexpExample. . . 374
13.4.5 Details of Tilde Expansion. . . .375
13.4.6 Details of Variable Substitution. . . 375
14
The Basic Program/System Interface
. . . .
379
14.1 Program Arguments. . . .379
14.1.1 Program Argument Syntax Conventions. . . 380
14.1.2 Parsing Program Arguments. . . 381
14.2 Parsing Program Options Usinggetopt. . . 381
14.2.1 Using thegetoptFunction. . . 381
14.2.2 Example of Parsing Arguments withgetopt. . . 382
14.2.3 Parsing Long Options withgetopt_long. . . 385
14.2.4 Example of Parsing Long Options withgetopt_long . . . 386
14.3 Parsing Program Options with Argp. . . 389
14.3.1 Theargp_parseFunction. . . 389
14.3.2 Argp Global Variables. . . 390
14.3.3 Specifying Argp Parsers. . . 391
14.3.4 Specifying Options in an Argp Parser. . . 392
14.3.4.1 Flags for Argp Options. . . 393
14.3.5 Argp Parser Functions. . . 394
14.3.5.1 Special Keys for Argp Parser Functions. . .395
14.3.5.2 Functions for Use in Argp Parsers. . . 397
14.3.5.3 Argp Parsing State. . . .399
14.3.6 Combining Multiple Argp Parsers. . . 400
14.3.7 Flags forargp_parse. . . 401
14.3.8 Customizing Argp Help Output. . . 402
14.3.8.1 Special Keys for Argp Help Filter Functions . . . 403
14.3.9 Theargp_helpFunction. . . 403
14.3.10 Flags for theargp_helpFunction. . . 404
14.3.11 Argp Examples. . . 405
14.3.11.1 A Minimal Program Using Argp. . . 405
14.3.11.2 A Program Using Argp with Only Default Options. . . 406
14.3.11.3 A Program Using Argp with User Options . . . 407
14.3.11.4 A Program Using Multiple Combined Argp Parsers. . . 411
14.3.12 Argp User Customization. . . .415
14.3.12.1 Parsing of Suboptions. . . 416
14.4 Environment Variables. . . 418
14.4.1 Environment Access. . . .419
14.4.2 Standard Environment Variables. . . 421
14.5 System Calls. . . 423
14.6 Program Termination. . . 425
14.6.1 Normal Termination. . . .425
14.6.2 Exit Status. . . 425
14.6.3 Clean-Ups on Exit. . . 426
14.6.4 Aborting a Program. . . 427
14.6.5 Termination Internals. . . .428
15
Input/Output Overview
. . . .
429
15.1 Input/Output Concepts. . . 429
15.1.1 Streams and File Descriptors. . . .429
15.1.2 File Position. . . 430
15.2 File Names. . . 431
15.2.1 Directories. . . 431
15.2.2 File-Name Resolution. . . 432
15.2.3 File-Name Errors. . . 433
15.2.4 Portability of File Names. . . 434
16
Debugging Support
. . . .
435
16.1 Backtraces. . . .435
17
Input/Output on Streams
. . . .
439
17.1 Streams. . . 439
17.2 Standard Streams. . . 439
17.3 Opening Streams. . . 440
17.4 Closing Streams. . . 444
17.5 Streams and Threads. . . 445
17.6 Streams in Internationalized Applications. . . 448
17.7 Simple Output by Characters or Lines. . . .450
17.8 Character Input. . . 453
17.9 Line-Oriented Input. . . 455
17.10 Unreading. . . 458
17.10.1 What Unreading Means. . . 458
17.10.2 Usingungetcto Do Unreading. . . 458
17.11 Block Input/Output. . . 459
17.12 Formatted Output. . . .460
17.12.1 Formatted Output Basics. . . 461
17.12.2 Output Conversion Syntax. . . .462
17.12.3 Table of Output Conversions. . . .463
17.12.4 Integer Conversions. . . 465
17.12.5 Floating-Point Conversions. . . 467
xi
17.12.7 Formatted Output Functions. . . 470
17.12.8 Dynamically Allocating Formatted Output. . . 473
17.12.9 Variable Arguments Output Functions. . . .474
17.12.10 Parsing a Template String. . . 476
17.12.11 Example of Parsing a Template String. . . 478
17.13 Customizingprintf. . . 480
17.13.1 Registering New Conversions. . . 480
17.13.2 Conversion Specifier Options. . . 481
17.13.3 Defining the Output Handler. . . 482
17.13.4 printfExtension Example. . . 483
17.13.5 PredefinedprintfHandlers. . . 485
17.14 Formatted Input. . . 486
17.14.1 Formatted Input Basics. . . 486
17.14.2 Input Conversion Syntax. . . 488
17.14.3 Table of Input Conversions. . . 489
17.14.4 Numeric Input Conversions. . . .490
17.14.5 String Input Conversions. . . 492
17.14.6 Dynamically Allocating String Conversions. . . 494
17.14.7 Other Input Conversions. . . 494
17.14.8 Formatted Input Functions. . . .495
17.14.9 Variable Arguments Input Functions. . . 496
17.15 End-of-File and Errors. . . 497
17.16 Recovering from Errors. . . 498
17.17 Text and Binary Streams. . . 499
17.18 File Positioning. . . .500
17.19 Portable File-Position Functions. . . 502
17.20 Stream Buffering. . . 504
17.20.1 Buffering Concepts. . . 505
17.20.2 Flushing Buffers. . . 505
17.20.3 Controlling Which Kind of Buffering. . . 506
17.21 Other Kinds of Streams. . . 509
17.21.1 String Streams. . . 509
17.21.2 Obstack Streams. . . 511
17.21.3 Programming Your Own Custom Streams. . . 512
17.21.3.1 Custom Streams and Cookies. . . 512
17.21.3.2 Custom Stream Hook Functions. . . .513
17.22 Formatted Messages. . . 514
17.22.1 Printing Formatted Messages. . . 515
17.22.2 Adding Severity Classes. . . 518
17.22.3 How to Usefmtmsgandaddseverity. . . 518
Appendix A
Summary of Library Facilities
. . . .
521
Appendix C
Free Software Needs Free Documentation
. . . .
591
Appendix D
GNULesser General Public License
. . . . .
593
D.0.1 Preamble. . . 593
D.0.2 TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR COPYING, DISTRIBUTION AND MODIFICATION. . . 595
D.0.3 How to Apply These Terms to Your New Libraries. . 602
Appendix E
GNUFree Documentation License
. . . .
603
E.0.1 ADDENDUM: How to Use This License for Your Documents. . . 609
Concept Index
. . . .
611
Type Index
. . . .
617
Function and Macro Index
. . . .
619
Variable and Constant Macro Index
. . . .
629
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
1 Introduction
The C language provides no built-in facilities for performing such common op-erations as input/output, memory management, string manipulation and the like. Instead, these facilities are defined in a standardlibrary, which you compile and link with your programs.
The GNUC Library, described in this document, defines all of the library func-tions that are specified by theISOC standard, as well as additional features specific
toPOSIX and other derivatives of the Unix operating system, and extensions
spe-cific to theGNUsystem.
The purpose of this manual is to tell you how to use the facilities of the GNU
library. We have mentioned which features belong to which standards to help you identify things that are potentially nonportable. But the emphasis in this manual is not on strict portability.
1.1 Getting Started
This manual is written with the assumption that you are at least somewhat fa-miliar with the C programming language and basic programming concepts. Specif-ically, familiarity with ISOstandard C (seeSection 1.2.1 [ISOC], page 2), rather than “traditional” pre-ISOC dialects, is assumed.
The GNU C Library includes severalheader files, each of which provides def-initions and declarations for a group of related facilities; this information is used by the C compiler when processing your program. For example, the header file ‘stdio.h’ declares facilities for performing input and output, and the header file ‘string.h’ declares string-processing utilities. The organization of this manual generally follows the same division as the header files.
If you are reading this manual for the first time, you should read all of the in-troductory material and skim the remaining chapters. There are alot of functions in the GNU C Library and it is not realistic to expect that you will be able to re-member exactlyhow to use each and every one of them. It is more important to become generally familiar with the kinds of facilities that the library provides, so that when you are writing your programs you can recognizewhento make use of library functions, andwherein this manual you can find more specific information about them.
1.2 Standards and Portability
This section discusses the various standards and other sources that the GNU C Library is based upon. These sources include theISOC andPOSIXstandards, and the System V and Berkeley Unix implementations.
this can affect how you use the library. This section gives you an overview of these standards, so that you will know what they are when they are mentioned in other parts of the manual.
SeeAppendix A [Summary of Library Facilities], page 521, for an alphabetical list of the functions and other symbols provided by the library. This list also states which standards each function or symbol comes from.
1.2.1
ISOC
The GNU C Library is compatible with the C standard adopted by the
Amer-ican National Standards Institute (ANSI)as American National Standard X3.159-1989—"ANSIC"and later by the International Standardization Organization (ISO)
asISO/IEC9899:1990,"Programming languages—C". In this manual, we refer to
the standard as ISOC since this is the more general standard with respect to rati-fication. The header files and library facilities that make up theGNU library are a superset of those specified by theISOC standard.
If you are concerned about strict adherence to theISOC standard, you should use the ‘-ansi’ option when you compile your programs with the GNUC Compiler. This tells the compiler to defineonlyISOstandard features from the library header files, unless you explicitly ask for additional features. SeeSection 1.3.4 [Feature-Test Macros], page 8, for information on how to do this.
Being able to restrict the library to include onlyISOC features is important be-cause ISOC puts limitations on what names can be defined by the library imple-mentation, and the GNU extensions don’t fit these limitations. See Section 1.3.3 [Reserved Names], page 6, for more information about these restrictions.
This manual does not attempt to give you complete details on the differences between ISOC and older dialects. It gives advice on how to write programs to work portably under multiple C dialects, but does not aim for completeness.
1.2.2
POSIX(The Portable Operating System Interface)
The GNU library is also compatible with the ISO POSIX family of standards,
known more formally as the Portable Operating System Interface for Computer Environments (ISO/IEC9945). They were also published asANSI/IEEE Std 1003.
POSIXis derived mostly from various versions of the Unix operating system.
The library facilities specified by the POSIX standards are a superset of those required byISOC;POSIXspecifies additional features forISOC functions, as well as specifying new additional functions. In general, the additional requirements and functionality defined by the POSIX standards are aimed at providing lower-level support for a particular kind of operating system environment, rather than general programming language support that can run in many diverse operating system en-vironments.
The GNU C Library implements all of the functions specified inISO/IEC 9945-1:1996, thePOSIXSystem Application Program Interface, commonly referred to as
Chapter 1: Introduction 3
include file-system interface primitives1, device-specific terminal control func-tions2and process control functions.3
Some facilities fromISO/IEC9945-2:1993, thePOSIXShell and Utilities standard
(POSIX.2) are also implemented in theGNUlibrary. These include utilities for
deal-ing with regular expressions and other pattern-matchdeal-ing facilities (seeChapter 13 [Pattern Matching], page 355).
1.2.3 Berkeley Unix
The GNU C Library defines facilities from some versions of Unix that are not formally standardized, specifically from the 4.2 BSD, 4.3 BSD and 4.4 BSD Unix systems (also known asBerkeley Unix) and from SunOS(a popular 4.2BSD deriva-tive that includes some Unix System V functionality). These systems support most of theISOC andPOSIXfacilities, and 4.4BSDand newer releases of SunOSin fact support them all.
TheBSDfacilities include symbolic links4, theselectfunction5, the
BSD
sig-nal functions6and sockets.7
1.2.4
SVID(The System V Interface Description)
TheSystem V Interface Description (SVID) is a document describing the AT&T Unix System V operating system. It is to some extent a superset of the POSIX
standard.
The GNU C Library defines most of the facilities required by theSVIDthat are
not also required by theISOC or POSIXstandards, for compatibility with System
V Unix and other Unix systems (such as SunOS) that include these facilities. How-ever, many of the more obscure and less generally useful facilities required by the
SVIDare not included. (In fact, Unix System V itself does not provide them all.)
The supported facilities from System V include the methods for inter-process communication and shared memory, thehsearchanddrand48families of func-tions,fmtmsgand several of the mathematical functions.
1
See Sandra Loosemore et al., “File-System Interface”,GNU C Library: Systems & Network Appli-cations(Boston: GNU Press, 2004), available online athttp:// www.gnu.org/ manual/ manual.html.
2 Ibid., “Low-Level Terminal Interface”.
3
Ibid., “Processes”.
4
Ibid., “Symbolic Links”.
5
Ibid., “Waiting for Input or Output”.
6
Ibid., “BSDSignal Handling”.
7
1.2.5
XPG(The X/Open Portability Guide)
TheX/Open Portability Guide8is a more general standard thanPOSIX. X/Open owns the Unix copyright and theXPGspecifies the requirements for systems that
are intended to be Unix systems.
TheGNUC Library complies with theX/Open Portability Guide, Issue 4.2, with all extensions common toXSI (X/Open System Interface) compliant systems and also all X/Open Unix extensions.
The additions on top ofPOSIXare mainly derived from functionality available in System V andBSD systems, though some of the really bad mistakes in System V systems were corrected. Since fulfilling theXPGstandard with the Unix extensions is a precondition for getting the Unix brand, chances are good that the functionality is available on commercial systems.
1.3 Using the Library
This section describes some of the practical issues involved in using theGNUC Library.
1.3.1 Header Files
Libraries for use by C programs really consist of two parts: header files that define types and macros and declare variables and functions, and the actual library orarchive that contains the definitions of the variables and functions.
(Recall that in C, a declaration merely provides information that a function or variable exists and gives its type. For a function declaration, information about the types of its arguments might be provided as well. The purpose of declarations is to allow the compiler to correctly process references to the declared variables and functions. Adefinition, on the other hand, actually allocates storage for a variable or says what a function does.)
In order to use the facilities in the GNUC Library, you should be sure that your program source files include the appropriate header files. This is so that the com-piler has declarations of these facilities available and can correctly process refer-ences to them. Once your program has been compiled, the linker resolves these references to the actual definitions provided in the archive file.
Header files are included into a program source file by the ‘#include’ prepro-cessor directive. The C language supports two forms of this directive; the first,
#include "header"
is typically used to include a header fileheaderthat you write yourself; this would contain definitions and declarations describing the interfaces between the different parts of your particular application. By contrast,
8
X/Open Company, X/Open Portability Guide, Issue 4 (Reading, UK: X/Open Company, Ltd.,
Chapter 1: Introduction 5
#include <file.h>
is typically used to include a header file ‘file.h’ that contains definitions and declarations for a standard library. This file would normally be installed in a stan-dard place by your system administrator. You should use this second form for the C library header files.
Typically, ‘#include’ directives are placed at the top of the C source file, be-fore any other code.9 If you begin your source files with some comments explaining what the code in the file does (a good idea), put the ‘#include’ directives im-mediately afterward, following the feature-test macro definition (seeSection 1.3.4 [Feature-Test Macros], page 8).
TheGNUC Library provides several header files, each of which contains the type and macro definitions and variable and function declarations for a group of related facilities. This means that your programs may need to include several header files, depending on exactly which facilities you are using.
Some library header files include other library header files automatically. How-ever, as a matter of programming style, you should not rely on this; it is better to explicitly include all the header files required for the library facilities you are using. TheGNUC Library header files have been written in such a way that it doesn’t
mat-ter if a header file is accidentally included more than once; including a header file a second time has no effect. Likewise, if your program needs to include multiple header files, the order in which they are included doesn’t matter.
Compatibility Note: Inclusion of standard header files in any order and any number of times works in anyISOC implementation. However, this has tradition-ally not been the case in many older C implementations.
Strictly speaking, you don’t have to include a header file to use a function it declares; you could declare the function explicitly yourself, according to the spec-ifications in this manual. But it is usually better to include the header file because it may define types and macros that are not otherwise available and because it may define more efficient macro replacements for some functions. It is also a sure way to have the correct declaration.
1.3.2 Macro Definitions of Functions
If we describe something as a function in this manual, it may have a macro definition as well. This normally has no effect on how your program runs—the macro definition does the same thing as the function would. In particular, macro equivalents for library functions evaluate arguments exactly once, in the same way that a function call would. The main reason for these macro definitions is that sometimes they can produce an in-line expansion that is considerably faster than an actual function call.
9 For more information about the use of header files and ‘#include’ directives, see Richard M.
Stallman and the GCC Developer Community, “Header Files” inThe GNU C Preprocessor
Taking the address of a library function works even if it is also defined as a macro. This is because, in this context, the name of the function isn’t followed by the left parenthesis that is syntactically necessary to recognize a macro call.
You might occasionally want to avoid using the macro definition of a function— perhaps to make your program easier to debug. There are two ways you can do this:
1. You can avoid a macro definition in a specific use by enclosing the name of the function in parentheses. This works because the name of the function does not appear in a syntactic context where it is recognizable as a macro call.
2. You can suppress any macro definition for a whole source file by using the ‘#undef’ preprocessor directive, unless otherwise stated explicitly in the de-scription of that facility.
For example, suppose the header file ‘stdlib.h’ declares a function named
abswith:
extern int abs (int);
and also provides a macro definition forabs. Then, in:
#include <stdlib.h>
int f (int *i) { return abs (++*i); }
the reference toabsmight refer to either a macro or a function. On the other hand, in each of the following examples, the reference is to a function and not a macro:
#include <stdlib.h>
int g (int *i) { return (abs) (++*i); }
#undef abs
int h (int *i) { return abs (++*i); }
Since macro definitions that double for a function behave in exactly the same way as the actual function version, there is usually no need for any of these methods. In fact, removing macro definitions usually just makes your program slower.
1.3.3 Reserved Names
The names of all library types, macros, variables and functions that come from the ISOC standard are reserved unconditionally; your program may notredefine these names. All other library names are reserved if your program explicitly in-cludes the header file that defines or declares them. There are several reasons for these restrictions:
Chapter 1: Introduction 7
• It avoids the possibility of a user accidentally redefining a library function that is called by other library functions. If redefinition were allowed, those other functions would not work properly.
• It allows the compiler to do whatever special optimizations it pleases on calls to these functions, without the possibility that they may have been redefined by the user. Some library facilities, such as those for dealing with variadic arguments10 and nonlocal exits11, actually require a considerable amount of cooperation on the part of the C compiler, and with respect to the implemen-tation, it might be easier for the compiler to treat these as built-in parts of the language.
In addition to the names documented in this manual, reserved names include all external identifiers (global functions and variables) that begin with an underscore (‘_’) and all identifiers regardless of use that begin with either two underscores or an underscore followed by a capital letter. This is so that the library and header files can define functions, variables, and macros for internal purposes without risk of conflict with names in user programs.
Some additional classes of identifier names are reserved for future extensions to the C language or thePOSIX.1 environment. While using these names for your own purposes right now might not cause a problem, there is the possibility of conflict with future versions of the C orPOSIXstandards, so you should avoid using them:
• Names beginning with a capital ‘E’ followed by a digit or uppercase letter may be used for additional error-code names (seeChapter 2 [Error Reporting], page 17).
• Names that begin with either ‘is’ or ‘to’ followed by a lowercase letter may be used for additional character testing and conversion functions (see Chap-ter 4 [CharacChap-ter Handling], page 79).
• Names that begin with ‘LC_’ followed by an uppercase letter may be used for additional macros specifying locale attributes (seeChapter 7 [Locales and Internationalization], page 181).
• Names of all existing mathematics functions (seeChapter 8 [Mathematics], page 203) suffixed with ‘f’ or ‘l’ are reserved for corresponding functions that operate onfloatandlong doublearguments, respectively.
• Names that begin with ‘SIG’ followed by an uppercase letter are reserved for additional signal names.12
• Names that begin with ‘SIG_’ followed by an uppercase letter are reserved for additional signal actions.13
• Names beginning with ‘str’, ‘mem’, or ‘wcs’ followed by a lowercase letter are reserved for additional string and array functions (see Chapter 5 [String and Array Utilities], page 89).
10
See Loosemore et al., “Variadic Functions”.
11
Ibid., “Nonlocal Exits”.
12
Ibid., “Standard Signals”.
13
• Names that end with ‘_t’ are reserved for additional type names.
In addition, some individual header files reserve names beyond those that they actually define. You only need to worry about these restrictions if your program includes that particular header file.
• The header file ‘dirent.h’ reserves names prefixed with ‘d_’.
• The header file ‘fcntl.h’ reserves names prefixed with ‘l_’, ‘F_’, ‘O_’, and ‘S_’.
• The header file ‘grp.h’ reserves names prefixed with ‘gr_’. • The header file ‘limits.h’ reserves names suffixed with ‘_MAX’. • The header file ‘pwd.h’ reserves names prefixed with ‘pw_’.
• The header file ‘signal.h’ reserves names prefixed with ‘sa_’ and ‘SA_’. • The header file ‘sys/stat.h’ reserves names prefixed with ‘st_’ and ‘S_’.
• The header file ‘sys/times.h’ reserves names prefixed with ‘tms_’. • The header file ‘termios.h’ reserves names prefixed with ‘c_’, ‘V’, ‘I’,
‘O’, and ‘TC’; and names prefixed with ‘B’ followed by a digit.
1.3.4 Feature-Test Macros
The exact set of features available when you compile a source file is controlled by whichfeature-test macrosyou define.
If you compile your programs using ‘gcc -ansi’, you get only theISOC
li-brary features, unless you explicitly request additional features by defining one or more of the feature macros.14
You should define these macros by using ‘#define’ preprocessor directives at the top of your source code files. These directives must come before any
#includeof a system header file. It is best to make them the very first thing in the file, preceded only by comments. You could also use the ‘-D’ option to
GCC, but it is better if you make the source files indicate their own meaning in a self-contained way.
This system exists to allow the library to conform to multiple standards. Al-though the different standards are often described as supersets of each other, they are usually incompatible because larger standards require functions with names that smaller ones reserve to the user program. This is not mere pedantry—it has been a problem in practice. For instance, some non-GNUprograms define functions named
getlinethat have nothing to do with this library’sgetline. They would not be compilable if all features were enabled indiscriminately.
14
See Richard M. Stallman and the GCC Developer Community, “Invoking GCC” inUsing GCC:
The GNU Compiler Collection Reference Manual (Boston, MA: GNU Press, October 2003), http:// gcc.gnu.org/ onlinedocs/ gcc-3.3.2/ gcc/, for more information about
Chapter 1: Introduction 9
This should not be used to verify that a program conforms to a limited standard. It is insufficient for this purpose, as it will not protect you from including header files outside the standard, or relying on semantics undefined within the standard.
Macro
POSIX SOURCE
If you define this macro, then the functionality from thePOSIX.1 standard (IEEE
Standard 1003.1) is available, as well as all of theISOC facilities.
The state of_POSIX_SOURCEis irrelevant if you define the macro_POSIX_ C_SOURCEto a positive integer.
Macro
POSIX C SOURCE
Define this macro to a positive integer to control whichPOSIX functionality is made available. The greater the value of this macro, the more functionality is made available.
If you define this macro to a value greater than or equal to1, then the functional-ity from the 1990 edition of thePOSIX.1 standard (IEEEStandard 1003.1-1990) is made available.
If you define this macro to a value greater than or equal to2, then the functional-ity from the 1992 edition of thePOSIX.2 standard (IEEEStandard 1003.2-1992) is made available.
If you define this macro to a value greater than or equal to199309L, then the functionality from the 1993 edition of the POSIX.1b standard (IEEE Standard 1003.1b-1993) is made available.
Greater values for _POSIX_C_SOURCE will enable future extensions. The
POSIXstandards process will define these values as necessary, and the GNUC
Library should support them some time after they become standardized. The 1996 edition of POSIX.1 (ISO/IEC 9945-1: 1996) states that if you define _ POSIX_C_SOURCE to a value greater than or equal to 199506L, then the functionality from the 1996 edition is made available.
Macro
BSD SOURCE
If you define this macro, functionality derived from 4.3BSDUnix is included as well as theISOC,POSIX.1, andPOSIX.2 material.
Some of the features derived from 4.3BSDUnix conflict with the corresponding features specified by thePOSIX.1 standard. If this macro is defined, the 4.3BSD
definitions take precedence over thePOSIXdefinitions.
Due to the nature of some of the conflicts between 4.3 BSDandPOSIX.1, you
Macro
SVID SOURCE
If you define this macro, functionality derived fromSVIDis included as well as
theISOC,POSIX.1,POSIX.2 and X/Open material.
Macro
XOPEN SOURCE
Macro
XOPEN SOURCE EXTENDED
If you define this macro, functionality described in the X/Open Portability Guide15is included. This is a superset of the
POSIX.1 andPOSIX.2
functional-ity and in fact_POSIX_SOURCEand_POSIX_C_SOURCEare automatically defined.
As the unification of all Unices, functionality only available inBSDandSVIDis also included.
If the macro_XOPEN_SOURCE_EXTENDEDis also defined, even more func-tionality is available. The extra functions will make all functions available that are necessary for the X/Open Unix brand.
If the macro_XOPEN_SOURCEhas the value 500, this includes all functionality described so far plus some new definitions from the Single Unix Specification, version 2.
Macro
LARGEFILE SOURCE
If this macro is defined, some extra functions are available that rectify a few shortcomings in all previous standards. Specifically, the functions fseeko
andftelloare available. Without these functions, the difference between the
ISOC interface (fseek,ftell) and the low-level POSIX interface (lseek) would lead to problems.
This macro was introduced as part of the Large File Support extension (LFS).
Macro
LARGEFILE64 SOURCE
If you define this macro, an additional set of functions is made available that enables 32-bit systems to use files of sizes beyond the usual limit of 2GB. This interface is not available if the system does not support files that large. On systems where the natural file size limit is greater than 2GB (i.e., on 64-bit systems), the new functions are identical to the replaced functions.
The new functionality is made available by a new set of types and functions that replace the existing ones. The names of these new objects contain64to indicate the intention, e.g.,off_tvs.off64_tandfseekovs.fseeko64. This macro was introduced as part of the Large File Support extension (LFS). It is a transition interface for the period when 64-bit offsets are not generally used (see_FILE_OFFSET_BITS).
15
X/Open Company,X/Open Portability Guide,Issue 4, Version 2 (Reading, UK: X/Open Company,
Chapter 1: Introduction 11
Macro
FILE OFFSET BITS
This macro determines which file-system interface will be used, one replac-ing the other. Whereas_LARGEFILE64_SOURCEmakes the 64-bit interface available as an additional interface,_FILE_OFFSET_BITSallows the 64-bit interface to replace the old interface.
If _FILE_OFFSET_BITS is undefined, or if it is defined to the value 32, nothing changes. The 32-bit interface is used and types likeoff_thave a size of 32 bits on 32-bit systems.
If the macro is defined to the value64, the large file interface replaces the old interface. The functions are not made available under different names (as they are with_LARGEFILE64_SOURCE); instead, the old function names now ref-erence the new functions, e.g., a call tofseekonow indeed callsfseeko64. This macro should only be selected if the system provides mechanisms for han-dling large files. On 64-bit systems this macro has no effect since the *64
functions are identical to the normal functions.
This macro was introduced as part of the Large File Support extension (LFS).
Macro
ISOC99 SOURCE
Until the revisedISOC standard is widely adopted the new features are not au-tomatically enabled. TheGNUlibc nevertheless has a complete implementation of the new standard. To enable the new features the macro_ISOC99_SOURCE
should be defined.
Macro
GNU SOURCE
If you define this macro, everything is included: ISOC89, ISOC99, POSIX.1,
POSIX.2, BSD, SVID, X/Open, LFS, and GNU extensions. In the cases where
POSIX.1 conflicts withBSD, thePOSIXdefinitions take precedence.
If you want to get the full effect of_GNU_SOURCEbut make theBSDdefinitions
take precedence over thePOSIXdefinitions, use this sequence of definitions:
#define _GNU_SOURCE #define _BSD_SOURCE #define _SVID_SOURCE
If you do this, you must link your program with theBSDcompatibility library by
passing the ‘-lbsd-compat’ option to the compiler or linker. If you forget, you may get very strange errors at run time.
Macro
REENTRANT
Macro
THREAD SAFE
If you define one of these macros, reentrant versions of several functions get declared. Some of the functions are specified inPOSIX.1c, but many others are only available on a few other systems or are unique to GNUlibc. The problem is the delay in the standardization of the thread safe C library interface.
We recommend you use_GNU_SOURCEin new programs. If you don’t specify the ‘-ansi’ option to GCCand do not define any of these macros explicitly, the effect is the same as defining_POSIX_C_SOURCEto 2 and_POSIX_SOURCE,
_SVID_SOURCEand_BSD_SOURCEto 1.
When you define a feature-test macro to request a larger class of features, it is harmless to define, in addition, a feature-test macro for a subset of those fea-tures. For example, if you define_POSIX_C_SOURCE, then defining_POSIX_ SOURCEas well has no effect. Likewise, if you define_GNU_SOURCE, defining either_POSIX_SOURCE,_POSIX_C_SOURCE, or_SVID_SOURCEas well has no effect.
Note, however, that the features of _BSD_SOURCE are not a subset of any of the other feature-test macros supported. This is because it definesBSDfeatures that
take precedence over thePOSIXfeatures that are requested by the other macros. For
this reason, defining _BSD_SOURCEin addition to the other feature-test macros does have an effect—it causes theBSDfeatures to take priority over the conflicting
POSIXfeatures.
1.4 Road Map to the Manual
Here is an overview of the contents of the remaining chapters of this manual. The following chapters are found in the first volume, Sandra Loosemore et al.,
GNU C Library: Application Fundamentals(Boston: GNU Press, 2004), available online athttp:// www.gnu.org/ manual/ manual.html.
• “Error Reporting” describes how errors detected by the library are reported. • “Virtual Memory Allocation and Paging” describes theGNUlibrary’s facilities
for managing and using virtual and real memory, including dynamic allocation of virtual memory. If you do not know in advance how much memory your program needs, you can allocate it dynamically instead, and manipulate it via pointers.
• “Character Handling” contains information about character-classification functions (such asisspace) and functions for performing case conversion. • “String and Array Utilities” has descriptions of functions for manipulating
strings (null-terminated character arrays) and general byte arrays, including operations such as copying and comparison.
Chapter 1: Introduction 13
• “Arithmetic Functions” describes functions for simple arithmetic, analysis of floating-point values, and reading numbers from strings.
• “Date and Time” describes functions for measuring both calendar time and
CPUtime, as well as functions for setting alarms and timers.
• “Message Translation” describes how to write programs that are capable of delivering messages in whatever language the user selects without filling the source code with sets of translations.
• “Searching and Sorting” contains information about functions for searching and sorting arrays. You can use these functions on any kind of array by pro-viding an appropriate comparison function.
• “Pattern Matching” presents functions for matching regular expressions and shell file-name patterns, and for expanding words as the shell does.
• “The Basic Program/System Interface” tells how your programs can access their command-line arguments and environment variables.
• “Input/Output Overview” gives an overall look at the input and output facili-ties in the library, and contains information about basic concepts such as file names.
• “Debugging Support” describes functions provided by the library to make the debugging process easier, whether or not a dedicated debugger program is being used.
• “Input/Output on Streams” describes I/O operations involving streams (or
FILE *objects). These are the normal C library functions from ‘stdio.h’. • “Summary of Library Facilities” gives a summary of all the functions, vari-ables, and macros in the library, with complete data types and function proto-types, and says what standard or system each is derived from. This section is also found in the second volume, for convenient reference.
The following chapters are found in the second volume, Sandra Loosemore et al.,GNU C Library: System & Network Applications(Boston: GNU Press, 2004), available online athttp:// www.gnu.org/ manual/ manual.html.
• “Low-Level Input/Output” contains information about I/O operations on file descriptors. File descriptors are a lower-level mechanism specific to the Unix family of operating systems.
• “File-System Interface” has descriptions of operations on entire files, such as functions for deleting and renaming them and for creating new directories. This chapter also contains information about how you can access the attributes of a file, such as its owner and file-protection modes.
• “Pipes and FIFOs” contains information about simple
interprocess-communication mechanisms. Pipes allow communication between two related processes (such as between a parent and child), while FIFOs allow communication between processes sharing a common file-system on the same machine.
over a network. This chapter also contains information about Internet host-addressing and how to use the system network databases.
• “Low-Level Terminal Interface” describes how you can change the attributes of a terminal device. If you want to disable echo of characters typed by the user, for example, read this chapter.
• “Processes” contains information about how to start new processes and run programs.
• “Job Control” describes functions for manipulating process groups and the controlling terminal. This material is probably only of interest if you are writ-ing a shell or other program that handles job control specially.
• “System Databases and Name-Service Switch” describes the services that are available for looking up names in the system databases, how to determine which service is used for which database, and how these services are imple-mented so that contributors can design their own services.
• “Users and Groups” tells you how to access the system user- and group-databases.
• “System Management” describes functions for controlling and getting infor-mation about the hardware and software configuration your program is exe-cuting under.
• “System Configuration Parameters” tells you how you can get information about various operating system limits. Most of these parameters are provided for compatibility withPOSIX.
• “DES Encryption and Password Handling” discusses the legal and technical issues related to password encryption and security, as well as the functions necessary to implement effective encryption.
• “Resource Usage and Limitation” tells you how to monitor the memory and other resource usage totals of processes, and how to regulate this usage. It also covers prioritization and scheduling.
• “Syslog” describes facilities for issuing and logging messages of system ad-ministration interest.
• “Nonlocal Exits” contains descriptions of thesetjmpandlongjmp func-tions. These functions provide a facility for goto-like jumps that can jump from one function to another.
• “Signal Handling” tells you all about signals—what they are, how to establish a handler that is called when a particular kind of signal is delivered, and how to prevent signals from arriving during critical sections of your program.
• “POSIXThreads” describes the pthreads (POSIXthreads) library. This library
provides support functions for multithreaded programs: thread primitives, syn-chronization objects, etc. It also implementsPOSIX1003.1b semaphores. • “C Language Facilities in the Library” contains information about library
sup-port for standard parts of the C language, including things like thesizeof
Chapter 1: Introduction 15
properties of the numerical types. There is also a simple debugging mecha-nism that allows you to put assertions in your code and have diagnostic mes-sages printed if the tests fail.
• “Installing the GNU C Library” provides a detailed reference for installing, compiling and configuring theGNUC Library. Configuration and optimization command-line options are covered here.
• “Library Maintenance” explains how to port and enhance theGNUC Library
and how to report any bugs you might find.
Chapter 2: Error Reporting 17
2 Error Reporting
Many functions in the GNU C Library detect and report error conditions, and sometimes your programs need to check for these error conditions. For example, when you open an input file, you should verify that the file was actually opened correctly, and print an error message or take other appropriate action if the call to the library function failed.
This chapter describes how the error-reporting facility works. Your program should include the header file ‘errno.h’ to use this facility.
2.1 Checking for Errors
Most library functions return a special value to indicate that they have failed. The special value is typically-1, a null pointer, or a constant such asEOFthat is defined for that purpose. But this return value tells you only that an error has occurred. To find out what kind of error it was, you need to look at the error code stored in the variableerrno. This variable is declared in the header file ‘errno.h’.
Variable
volatile interrno
The variable errno contains the system error number. You can change the value oferrno.
Sinceerrnois declaredvolatile, it might be changed asynchronously by a signal handler.1However, a properly written signal handler saves and restores the value oferrno, so you generally do not need to worry about this possibility except when writing signal handlers.
The initial value oferrnoat program start-up is zero. Many library functions are guaranteed to set it to certain nonzero values when they encounter certain kinds of errors. These error conditions are listed for each function. These func-tions do not changeerrnowhen they succeed; thus, the value oferrnoafter a successful call is not necessarily zero, and you should not useerrnoto de-terminewhethera call failed. The proper way to do that is documented for each function.If the call failed, you can examineerrno.
Many library functions can set errnoto a nonzero value as a result of call-ing other library functions that might fail. You should assume that any library function might altererrnowhen the function returns an error.
Portability Note: ISOC specifieserrnoas a"modifiable lvalue"rather than as a variable, permitting it to be implemented as a macro. For example, its expansion might involve a function call, like*_errno (). In fact, that is what
it is on the GNU system itself. The GNU library, on non-GNU systems, does whatever is right for the particular system.
There are a few library functions, likesqrtandatan, that return a perfectly legitimate value in case of an error, but also seterrno. For these functions, if
1
you want to check to see whether an error occurred, the recommended method is to set errno to zero before calling the function, and then check its value afterward.
All the error codes have symbolic names; they are macros defined in ‘errno.h’. The names start with ‘E’ and an uppercase letter or digit; you should consider names of this form to be reserved names (see Section 1.3.3 [Reserved Names], page 6).
The error code values are all positive integers and are all distinct, with one excep-tion:EWOULDBLOCKandEAGAINare the same. Since the values are distinct, you can use them as labels in aswitchstatement; just do not use bothEWOULDBLOCK
andEAGAIN. Your program should not make any other assumptions about the spe-cific values of these symbolic constants.
The value of errno doesn’t necessarily have to correspond to any of these macros, since some library functions might return other error codes of their own for other situations. The only values that are guaranteed to be meaningful for a particular library function are the ones that this manual lists for that function.
On non-GNUsystems, almost any system call can returnEFAULTif it is given an invalid pointer as an argument. Since this could only happen as a result of a bug in your program, and since it will not happen on theGNUsystem, we have saved space by not mentioningEFAULTin the descriptions of individual functions.
In some Unix systems, many system calls can also return EFAULTif given as an argument a pointer into the stack, and the kernel for some obscure reason fails in its attempt to extend the stack. If this ever happens, you should probably try using statically or dynamically allocated memory instead of stack memory on that system.
2.2 Error Codes
The error code macros are defined in the header file ‘errno.h’. All of them expand into integer constant values. Some of these error codes cannot occur on the
GNUsystem, but they can occur using theGNUlibrary on other systems.
Macro
intEPERM
This means the operation is not permitted; only the owner of the file (or other resource) or processes with special privileges can perform the operation.
Macro
intENOENT
This means there is no such file or directory. This is afile does not existerror for ordinary files that are referenced in contexts where they are expected to already exist.
Macro
intESRCH
Chapter 2: Error Reporting 19
Macro
intEINTR
This indicates an interrupted function call; an asynchronous signal occurred and prevented completion of the call. When this happens, you should try the call again.
You can choose to have functions resume after a signal that is handled, rather than failing withEINTR.2
Macro
intEIO
This indicates an input/output error; usually used for physical read or write er-rors.
Macro
intENXIO
This means there is no such device or address. The system tried to use the device represented by a file you specified, and it could not find the device. This can mean that the device file was installed incorrectly, or that the physical device is missing or not correctly attached to the computer.
Macro
intE2BIG
This means that the argument list is too long; it is used when the arguments passed to a new program being executed with one of theexec functions3 oc-cupy too much memory space. This condition never arises in theGNUsystem.
Macro
intENOEXEC
This indicates an invalid executable file format. This condition is detected by theexecfunctions.4
Macro
intEBADF
This indicates a bad file descriptor; for example, I/O on a descriptor that has been closed or reading from a descriptor open only for writing (or vice versa).
Macro
intECHILD
There are no child processes. This error happens on operations that are supposed to manipulate child processes when there are not any processes to manipulate.
Macro
intEDEADLK
This means a deadlock was avoided; allocating a system resource would have resulted in a deadlock situation. The system does not guarantee that it will notice all such situations. This error means you got lucky and the system noticed; it might just hang.5
2
Ibid., “Primitives Interrupted by Signals”.
3
Ibid., “Executing a File”.
4
Ibid.
5
Macro
intENOMEM
This means no memory is available. The system cannot allocate more virtual memory because its capacity is full.
Macro
intEACCES
This means that permission is denied; the file permissions do not allow the at-tempted operation.
Macro
intEFAULT
This indicates a bad address; an invalid pointer was detected. In theGNUsystem, this error never happens; you get a signal instead.
Macro
intENOTBLK
A file that is not a block special file was given in a situation that requires one. For example, trying to mount an ordinary file as a file system in Unix gives this error.
Macro
intEBUSY
This means that a resource is busy; a system resource that cannot be shared is already in use. For example, if you try to delete a file that is the root of a currently mounted file system, you get this error.
Macro
intEEXIST
This means a file exists; an existing file was specified in a context where it only makes sense to specify a new file.
Macro
intEXDEV
An attempt to make an improper link across file systems was detected. This happens not only when you uselink,6 but also when you rename a file with
rename.7
Macro
intENODEV
The wrong type of device was given to a function that expects a particular sort of device.
Macro
intENOTDIR
A file that is not a directory was specified when a directory is required.
Macro
intEISDIR
A file is a directory; you cannot open a directory for writing, or create or remove hard links to it.
6
Ibid., “Hard Links”.
7
Chapter 2: Error Reporting 21
Macro
intEINVAL
This indicates an invalid argument. This is used to indicate various kinds of problems with passing the wrong argument to a library function.
Macro
intEMFILE
The current process has too many files open and cannot open any more. Dupli-cate descriptors do count toward this limit.
InBSDandGNU, the number of open files is controlled by a resource limit that can usually be increased. If you get this error, you might want to increase the
RLIMIT_NOFILElimit or make it unlimited.8
Macro
intENFILE
There are too many distinct file openings in the entire system. Note that any number of linked channels count as just one file opening.9 This error never occurs in theGNUsystem.
Macro
intENOTTY
This indicates an inappropriate I/O control operation, such as trying to set ter-minal modes on an ordinary file.
Macro
intETXTBSY
This indicates an attempt to execute a file that is currently open for writing, or write to a file that is currently being executed. Often using a debugger to run a program is considered having it open for writing and will cause this error. (The name stands fortext file busy.) This is not an error in theGNUsystem; the text is copied as necessary.
Macro
intEFBIG
A file is too big; the size of a file would be larger than allowed by the system.
Macro
intENOSPC
No space is left on device; a write operation on a file failed because the disk is full.
Macro
intESPIPE
This indicates an invalid seek operation (such as on a pipe).
Macro
intEROFS
An attempt was made to modify something on a read-only file system.
8
Ibid., “Limiting Resource Usage”.
9
Macro
intEMLINK
There are too many links; the link count of a single file would become too large.
renamecan cause this error if the file being renamed already has as many links as it can take.10
Macro
intEPIPE
This indicates a broken pipe; there is no process reading from the other end of a pipe. Every library function that returns this error code also generates a
SIGPIPEsignal; this signal terminates the program if not handled or blocked. Thus, your program will never actually see EPIPE unless it has handled or blockedSIGPIPE.
Macro
intEDOM
This indicates a domain error; used by mathematical functions when an argu-ment value does not fall into the domain over which the function is defined.
Macro
intERANGE
This indicates a range error; used by mathematical functions when the result value is not representable because of overflow or underflow.
Macro
intEAGAIN
Resource temporarily unavailable; the call might work if you try again later. The macroEWOULDBLOCKis another name forEAGAIN; they are always the same in theGNUC Library.
This error can happen in a few different situations:
• An operation that would block was attempted on an object that has non-blocking mode selected. Trying the same operation again will block until some external condition makes it possible to read, write, or connect (what-ever the operation). You can useselectto find out when the operation will be possible.11
Portability Note: In many older Unix systems, this condition was indi-cated byEWOULDBLOCK, which was a distinct error code different from
EAGAIN. To make your program portable, you should check for both codes and treat them the same.
• A temporary resource shortage made an operation impossible. forkcan return this error. It indicates that the shortage is expected to pass, so your program can try the call again later and it may succeed. It is probably a good idea to delay for a few seconds before trying it again, to allow time for other processes to release scarce resources. Such shortages are usually fairly serious and affect the whole system, so usually an interactive program should report the error to the user and return to its command loop.
10
Ibid., “Renaming Files”.
11
Chapter 2: Error Reporting 23
Macro
intEWOULDBLOCK
In theGNUC Library, this is another name forEAGAIN. The values are always the same, on every operating system.
C libraries in many older Unix systems haveEWOULDBLOCKas a separate error code.
Macro
intEINPROGRESS
An operation that cannot complete immediately was initiated on an object that has nonblocking mode selected. Some functions that must always block (such as connect12) never return EAGAIN. Instead, they return EINPROGRESS
to indicate that the operation has begun and will take some time. Attempts to manipulate the object before the call completes returnEALREADY. You can use theselectfunction to find out when the pending operation has completed.13
Macro
intEALREADY
An operation is already in progress on an object that has nonblocking mode selected.
Macro
intENOTSOCK
A file that isn’t a socket was specified when a socket is required.
Macro
intEMSGSIZE
The size of a message sent on a socket was larger than the supported maximum size.
Macro
intEPROTOTYPE
The socket type does not support the requested communications protocol.
Macro
intENOPROTOOPT
You specified a socket option that doesn’t make sense for the particular protocol being used by the socket.14
Macro
intEPROTONOSUPPORT
The socket domain does not support the requested communications protocol (perhaps because the requested protocol is completely invalid).15
Macro
intESOCKTNOSUPPORT
The socket type is not supported.
12
Ibid., “Connecting”.
13
Ibid., “Waiting for Input or Output”.
14
Ibid., “Socket Options”.
15
Macro
intEOPNOTSUPP
The operation you requested is not supported. Some socket functions don’t make sense for all types of sockets, and others may not be implemented for all communications protocols. In theGNUsystem, this error can happen for many calls when the object does not support the particular operation; it is a generic indication that the server knows nothing to do for that call.
Macro
intEPFNOSUPPORT
The socket communications protocol family you requested is not supported.
Macro
intEAFNOSUPPORT
The address family specified for a socket is not supported; it is inconsistent with the protocol being used on the socket.16
Macro
intEADDRINUSE
The requested socket address is already in use.17
Macro
intEADDRNOTAVAIL
The requested socket address is not available; for example, you tried to give a socket a name that doesn’t match the local host name.18
Macro
intENETDOWN
A socket operation failed because the network was down.
Macro
intENETUNREACH
A socket operation failed because the subnet containing the remote host was unreachable.
Macro
intENETRESET
A network connection was reset because the remote host crashed.
Macro
intECONNABORTED
A network connection was aborted locally.
Macro
intECONNRESET
A network connection was closed for reasons outside the control of the local host, such as by the remote machine rebooting or an unrecoverable protocol violation.
Macro
intENOBUFS
The kernel’s buffers for I/O operations are all in use. In GNU, this error is always synonymous withENOMEM; you may get one or the other from network operations.
16
Ibid., “Sockets”.
17
Ibid., “Socket Addresses”.
18
