T
T
he rst step in specifying a shell-and-tube heathe rst step in specifying a shell-and-tube heat exchanger is selecting the right shell, which was exchanger is selecting the right shell, which was discussed in a previousdiscussed in a previous CEP CEP article ( article (11). The next step). The next step is determining the
is determining the most effective bafe arrangement.most effective bafe arrangement. Shell-and-tube
Shell-and-tube heat heat exchangers exchangers employ employ bafes bafes to to trans- trans- port h
port heat teat to or fo or from trom tubesiubeside prde process ocess uids uids by diby directirecting thng thee shellside uid ow. The increased structural support that shellside uid ow. The increased structural support that bafe
bafes provs provide iide is intes integral tgral to tube o tube stabistabilitylity, as th, as they miey miniminimizeze both t
both tube sube sagginagging due g due to stto structuructural wral weight eight and vand vibratibration dion dueue to cyclic ow forces.
to cyclic ow forces. However, bafes improve heat transferHowever, bafes improve heat transfer at the expense of increased total pressure drop.
at the expense of increased total pressure drop.
Bafes come in a range of shapes and sizes, the most Bafes come in a range of shapes and sizes, the most common of which is the segmental bafe. The Tubular common of which is the segmental bafe. The Tubular
Exchanger Manufacturers Association, Inc. (TEMA) provides Exchanger Manufacturers Association, Inc. (TEMA) provides design guidelines for segmental bafes. Other, design guidelines for segmental bafes. Other, non-TEMA-type bafes include helical, disc-and-donut, and grid bafes. type bafes include helical, disc-and-donut, and grid bafes. This article summarizes the performance characteristics of This article summarizes the performance characteristics of the different types of bafes and offers guidance on choosing the different types of bafes and offers guidance on choosing effective bafes for shell-and-tube heat exchanger design. effective bafes for shell-and-tube heat exchanger design.
Segmental baffle configurations
Segmental baffle configurations
Segmental
Segmental bafes, bafes, often often referred referred to to simply simply as as TEMATEMA bafe
bafes, are s, are circcircular ular plateplates with s with one oone or morr more segme segmentsents removed to allow the shellside uid to ow through an open removed to allow the shellside uid to ow through an open area, or window. T
area, or window. To prevent bundle ow o prevent bundle ow bypass, sealingbypass, sealing strips may be placed in notches along the edges of segmental strips may be placed in notches along the edges of segmental bafe
bafes. Bafs. Bafes maes may also y also have have holes holes throuthrough whigh which stch steeleel tie-rods can pass to provide increased structural support. tie-rods can pass to provide increased structural support. TEMA bafes can be single- or multi-segmental, or tube TEMA bafes can be single- or multi-segmental, or tube support plates. Tube support plates are used in
support plates. Tube support plates are used in the no-tubes-the no-tubes-in-window (NTIW) design to ensure that all bafes support in-window (NTIW) design to ensure that all bafes support every tube, eliminating tubes with long unsupported spans. every tube, eliminating tubes with long unsupported spans.
Figure 1 shows
Figure 1 shows the most common types of TEMA bafes.the most common types of TEMA bafes. Bafe
Bafe spacing, spacing, cut, cut, and and orientation orientation are are key key characteris- characteris-tics of TEMA bafe designs.
tics of TEMA bafe designs. Single-segmental bafes
Single-segmental bafes are used in many industrial heat are used in many industrial heat exchangers because of their suitability for a wide range of exchangers because of their suitability for a wide range of applications. They operate well in single-phase processes, applications. They operate well in single-phase processes, and crossow heat transfer (across the tubes) is greater than and crossow heat transfer (across the tubes) is greater than the longitudinal heat transfer (through the windows). the longitudinal heat transfer (through the windows). InIn addition, they are relatively easy to fabricate, so they are less addition, they are relatively easy to fabricate, so they are less expensive than other types of
expensive than other types of bafes.bafes. However,
However, single-segmental single-segmental bafes bafes may may not not be be effec- effec-tive with very viscous uids, where improperly mixed ow, tive with very viscous uids, where improperly mixed ow, bypa
bypass, ass, and lnd leakaeakage sge streatreams rems reducduce the the efe efcieciency ncy of heof heatat transfer. Furthermore, this conguration generates an transfer. Furthermore, this conguration generates an
undesir-Baffles play a crucial role in regulating shellside fluid
Baffles play a crucial role in regulating shellside fluid
flow and improving heat transfer between shellside
flow and improving heat transfer between shellside
and tubeside process fluids.
and tubeside process fluids. Here’
Here’s how to
s how to choose the
choose the
correct baffle to meet process
correct baffle to meet process requirements.
requirements.
Salem Bouhairie Salem Bouhairie
Heat Transfer Research, Inc. Heat Transfer Research, Inc.
Selecting Baffles for
Selecting Baffles for
Shell-and-Tube
Shell-and-Tube
Heat E
Heat E
xcha
xcha
ngers
ngers
p
p Figure 1. Figure 1.In exchangers with TEMA baffle types, smaller windowsIn exchangers with TEMA baffle types, smaller windows result in higher pressure drops.
result in higher pressure drops.
Single-Segmental Single-Segmental Highest Pressure Drop, Highest Pressure Drop,ΔΔPP
S S No-Tubes-In-Window No-Tubes-In-Window Wide Spacing Wide Spacing S
Suuppppoorrt t PPllaattee BBaaffffllee
Δ ΔPP D D≈ 0.33≈ 0.33ΔΔPPSS – 0.5 – 0.5ΔΔPPSS Double-Segmental Double-Segmental Δ ΔPP T T ≈ 0.25≈ 0.25ΔΔPPSS – 0.33 – 0.33ΔΔPPSS Triple-Segmental Triple-Segmental
Heat Transfer
ably high pressure drop, especially with high-velocity ows. Double-segmental bafes split the ow so that it passes around center bafes and between wing bafes (Figure 2). In general, the center and wing bafes overlap by two to four tube rows. The window ow area outside the center bafe should generally equal the window ow area between the wing bafes. Pressure drop is one-third to one-half that in a shell with single-segmental bafes. However, this results in lower crossow heat transfer — 60–90% of the heat transfer with single-segmental bafes at the same spacing and cut and the same total owrate.
Triple-segmental bafes have lower longitudinal-ow and crossow velocities (whereas double-segmental bafes have only lower crossow velocities) for a given bafe spac-ing. Triple-segmental bafes produce roughly one-fourth to one-third the pressure drop of single-segmental bafes in a comparably sized unit, and have heat-transfer rates that are as much as one-half lower (2). Triple-segmental bafes typically consist of three distinct bafe groups that create the equiva-lent of two double-segmental streams in parallel (Figure 3).
No-tubes-in-window (NTIW) congurations provide sup- port for all of the tubes to mitigate tube vibration in the
win-dow zone. Tube support plates are placed between widely spaced bafes. Because tubes cannot occupy the window spaces, larger shells are required to accommodate a specied tube count; this can be expensive for units operating at high shellside pressures. The lack of tubes in the window reduces pressure drop, while added support plates enhance crossow.
This results in better conversion of pressure drop to heat transfer than in exchangers with single-segmental bafes. The relative reduction in pressure drop depends on bafe cut, and the relative increase in heat transfer depends on the number of support plates added.
Baffle spacing
Bafe spacing is the longitudinal distance between baf-es. It controls the amount of effective heat transfer derived from the pressure drop within each compartment and affects
the potential for ow-induced vibration. The bafe spac-ing should be set such that the free-ow areas through the windows and across the tube bank are roughly equal.
TEMA standards specify that the minimum spacing between segmental bafes should be the larger of one-fth
of the shell inside diameter or 51 mm (3). Spacing that is too small will result in higher pressure drop and poor bundle ow penetration — i.e., it increases the axial ow inertia through the outer leakage areas between the bafe and shell. Small bafe spacing also makes it difcult to mechanically clean the outsides of the tubes.
Maximum spacing between segmental bafes (with tubes in window) should equal one-half the maximum unsupported span length. To enhance end-zone ow control and distribution, the bafes near the shell inlet and outlet should be located as close as practical to the shell nozzle. The distance between the rst and second bafes should not be less than the central bafe spacing, as shellside ow tends
to accelerate in the end zones.
The optimum ratio of bafe spacing to shell inside diam-eter that results in the highest conversion of pressure drop to heat transfer is generally between 0.3 and 0.6 (4).
Baffle cut
Bafe cut is the ratio of the bafe window height to the shell inside diameter. If the bafe cut is too small, the ow will jet through the window area and ow unevenly through the bafe compartment (Figure 4, left). If the bafe cut is too large, the ow will short-cut close to the bafe edge and avoid cross-mixing within the bafe compartment (Figure 4, right). A bafe cut that is either too large or too small can increase the potential for fouling in the shell.
In both cases, recirculation zones of poorly mixed ow cause thermal maldistribution that reduces heat transfer. To divert as much heat-carrying ow across the tube bundle as possible, adjacent bafes should overlap by at least one tube
row. This requires a bafe cut that is less than one-half of the shell inside diameter.
p Figure 3.In exchangers with triple-segmental baffles, larger window areas are responsible for lower total pressure drops.
p Figure 2.The window flow areas around the center and wing baffles in a double-segmental baffle arrangement should be roughly equal.
Center Baffle Wing Baffles Center Baffle
(First Baffle Group)
Wing Baffles (Third Baffle Group) Support Plates
Optimum bafe cuts are typically 25% of the shell inside diameter (Figure 5). However, for a single-segmental bafe conguration with low-pressure gas ows, a 40–45% bafe cut is common to limit pressure drop.
For NTIW congurations, a 15% bafe cut is most com-mon. The ratio of the window velocity to crossow velocity should be less than 3:1 for effective ow distribution.
Baffle orientation
The orientation of TEMA bafes is particularly important for horizontal shell-and-tube heat exchangers, especially near the inlet and outlet nozzles. Bafe cuts for segmental bafes may be parallel or perpendicular to the nozzle axis, or inclined, as shown in Figure 6. The best bafe orientation depends on the bafe and shell type.
Single-segmental bafes. For single-phase service, single-segmental bafes with a perpendicular bafe-cut orientation in an E- or J-shell are preferred to improve ow distribution in the inlet and outlet regions. With vertical inlet or outlet nozzles, parallel-cut bafes are preferred if the shellside process uid condenses and needs a means of drainage. Parallel-cut bafes should also be used when the shellside uid has the potential for particulate fouling, and in multipass F-, G-, or H-type shells to facilitate ow distribu-tion. (For an introduction to shell types, see Ref. 1.) How-ever, parallel-cut bafes have the potential for signicant ow and temperature maldistribution in the end zones, which can induce local tube vibration and reduce the effective
heat-transfer rate in the inlet and outlet bafe spaces. Figure 7, obtained via computational uid dynamics (CFD) modeling, illustrates this phenomenon.
Double-segmental bafes. To distribute ow effectively in the inlet region with double-segmental bafes, a center bafe with a parallel-cut orientation is generally selected as
the rst bafe. The parallel bafe cut reduces the accumula-tion of deposits from high-fouling shellside uids. It is good practice to locate the rst bafe under the nozzle, where
high owrates can cause tube vibration. The rst bafe is often shaped like a T to provide intermediate tube support where bundle entrance velocities have high kinetic energy (Figure 8, top).
If perpendicular-cut double-segmental bafes are used with single inlet and outlet nozzles, thermally ineffective areas will form in the end zones (Figure 8, middle). Better end-zone distribution can be achieved with two inlet and two outlet nozzles, plus wing bafes in the end zones to maintain ow symmetry upon entry and exit (Figure 8,
p Figure 4.If the baffle cut is too small (left) or too l arge (right), fouling can occur in the shaded areas due to uneven flow distribution.
p Figure 5.The optimum baffle cut is 25% of the shell inside diameter.
h
w
Baffle Cut = h
w / d
d
p Figure 6.Baffle orientation is referenced with respect to the nozzle axis, and can be parallel, perpendicular, or inclined.
Parallel-Cut Baffle Perpendicular-Cut Baffle Inclined-Cut Baffle
p Figure 7. Although preferred for certain shellside fluids, parallel-cut single-segmental baffles can cause uneven flow in the inlet and outlet regions.
Window 12 m/s
(39.4 ft/s)
Heat Transfer
bottom). In effect, the performance of perpendicular-cut double-segmental bafes depends on the number
of nozzles.
Triple-segmental bafes. The triple-segmental bafe set shown in Figure 3 has ve different components and is one of several possible arrangements. Other designs, which are not discussed here, have six pieces or three pieces. The permutations complicate the determination of bafe
orienta-tion, particularly in the inlet and outlet zones. Orientation of triple-segemental bafes has not been studied extensively, and general guidelines have not been developed.
Non-TEMA baffle types
Most non-TEMA-type bafes usually produce lower pressure drops and have better ow and heat-transfer distri- butions. The improvements stem from the bafes generating
crossow through swirling, maximizing longitudinal ow, or increasing symmetrical ow and heat-transfer distribu-tion. Helical, disc-and-donut, and grid bafes are the most common non-TEMA-type bafes.
Helical baffles
Helical bafes promote swirling ow, which helps to alleviate bypass and stagnant ow areas that can occur with conventional segmental bafes. They are effective for low-to high-viscosity uids, and they are commonly used in oil-renery and refrigeration applications. Heat exchangers with helical bafes may experience less shellside fouling than exchangers with segmental bafes. Helical bafes are subject to bundle-to-shell bypass at very high mass ow-rates. Unlike segmental bafes, helical bafes do not seem
to benet from added seal strips to block bypass, as the strips only increase pressure
drop.
Helical bafes can be continuous spiral assemblies. However, these are not common because they are difcult (and expensive) to
fabricate.
Instead, most helical-bafed heat
exchangers use bafes that are inclined at an angle from a transverse plane perpendicular to the shell axis (Figures 9 and 10). These quadrant bafes (each of which occupies one-fourth of the shell cross-section) touch each other at crossover points that dene a cross-fraction. The bafe cross-fraction is the ratio of the distance from the center of the shell to the crossover point divided by the shell radius (Figure 10).
Helical bafes can cross near their midpoint (a cross-fraction of 50%), tip-to-tip (a cross-fraction of 100%), or at a point within this range. Depending on user and fabricator prefer-ences, the cross-fraction selected may range from 20% to 100%. Reducing the cross-fraction (increasing the overlap) enhances tube support and protects against vibration, but at the expense of increased pressure drop. In general,
helical-p Figure 8.Double-segmental baffle configurations should use a T-shaped first plate with a parallel-cut orientation. Perpendicular-cut orientation should be used only with double i nlet and outlet nozzles.
Parallel Cut (End View) T-Baffle (End View)
Intermediate Vibration Support
Ineffective Region Perpendicular Cut (End View)
Perpendicular Cut (End View)
p Figure 9.Helical baffles promote swirling, which helps to reduce bypass and stagnant flow.
p Figure 10.Helical quadrant baffles touch at crossover points, which define the cross-fraction.
B B r co D Ø S D A A C C
(End View) (Elevation View) Baffle Crossover Points Cross-fraction = r co / r r = shell radius r
co = radial distance from shell axis to baffle crossover point
Ø
S= baffle angle relative to transverse plane through shell
bafed exchangers have less potential for tube vibration because the tubes are well supported by the quadrant bafes.
Helical bafes come in single- or double-helix congu-rations. Many industrial applications use 12-deg. to 15-deg. angled bafes. Larger bafe angles result in lower pressure drop and increased longitudinal ow relative to crossow. Some studies have reported that bafe angles of 25 deg. to 40 deg. produce optimal conversion of pressure drop to heat transfer (5).
The quadrant bafes induce ow that combines spiral crossow, longitudinal ow, and bypass ow (Figure 11). In reality, this ow is far from an ideal helix — it undergoes fewer revolutions than the number of bafe revolutions through the length of the exchanger. The design of these bafes requires knowledge of both the bafe angle and the
actual ow angle (i.e., the direction of the resulting vector of the three principal ow velocity components (x, y, and z, or axial, radial, and tangential), relative to a plane trans-verse to the exchanger axis).
Disc-and-donut baffles
Disc-and-donut bafes generate radially symmetric ow in both the crossow and longitudinal ow directions — the ow expands around the disc bafe and contracts through the donut bafe (Figure 12). A step change in both pressure drop and temperature occurs between consecutive pairs of disc bafes and donut bafes.
The main thermally effective crossow stream can occupy up to 80% of a bafe compartment, minimizing the bypass ow around the outer tubes (6). The driving forces
for bypass and leakage streams in an exchanger with
disc-and-donut bafes are smaller than those in exchangers with segmental bafes.
Disc-and-donut bafes are often installed in NTIW arrangements. Radial tube layouts are preferred over con-ventional triangular or square layouts, because the result-ing radial ow distribution produces uniform heat transfer throughout the tube bundle cross-section.
Disc-and-donut bafes are most effective in shellside vapor environments, and are commonly selected for gas-gas applications where vibration can be a problem.
Grid baffles
Grid bafes are metal lattices that generate primarily longitudinal ow. They produce low pressure drops, which results in high heat-transfer-to-pressure-drop ratios and protects against tube vibration. In addition, shellside ow
distribution is uniform, which is particularly important for shellside vaporization because it eliminates vapor pockets that can cause pitting of tubes and bafes (7).
The most common generic grid bafe designs are rod-type bafes and strip bafes. Each grid rod-type has a charac-teristic bafe ow-contraction ratio, which is dened as the free ow area through the bafe divided by the free ow area through the bundle between bafes. This parameter ranges from zero to one, with practical values of about 0.2 for high contraction and 0.7 for low contraction. The grid bafes act as strainers on the bundle free-ow area, locally
contracting and accelerating the heat-carrying ow longitu-dinally along the tubes. The higher the contraction ( i.e., the lower the contraction ratio), the higher the pressure drop. An exchanger design with a low contraction ratio, therefore, requires more pumping power than one with a high contrac-tion ratio.
Rod-type bafes are used in such applications as over-head condensers, gas coolers and heaters, feed and efuent exchangers, and kettle reboilers. They consist of rods laid out in a grid pattern that provide a supporting structure for the heat exchanger tubes and basic structural rigidity. The
p Figure 12.Disc-and-donut baffles distribute flow in a radially symmetric manner.
p Figure 11.The flow through a helical-baffled exchanger includes spiral crossflow, longitudinal flow, and bypass flow.
X Z
Y within Tube BundleLongitudinal Flow
Bypass Flow Outside Tube Bundle
Flow Angle Baffle Angle Z Z Radially Contracting Crossflow through Donut Baffle Radially Expanding Crossflow around Disc Baffle
Heat Transfer
longitudinal ow friction effectively generates heat transfer, especially in exchangers with long tubes.
Rod-type bafes are made by welding round rods to a supporting ring (Figure 13), which also serves as a seal to prevent leakage ows. The rods are often located after every second tube row, with consecutive bafes assembled at 90-deg. angles. Thus, they are generally limited to square tube layouts.
It is possible to corrugate the rods to support a triangular tube layout (known as a triangular-grid bafe). Triangular-grid bafes permit higher tube densities, produce higher turbulence, and generate higher heat transfer. However, mechanical cleaning of the tubes is more difcult due to lim-ited access lanes. Therefore, triangular layouts are appropri-ate for shellside services that use chemical cleaning.
In the bundle shown in Figure 13, four longitudinal tie bars are placed around the supporting ring to hold the bafes in place and maintain the proper bafe spacing.
Rods with as small a diameter as possible are preferred, to permit a higher tube density and hence higher heat-transfer
rate. The bafe contraction ratio for rod-type bafes is about 0.55–0.65 (7).
Some industrial applications benet from combin-ing rod-type bafes with segmental bafes. Figure 14 shows two rod-type bafes tted within the space between single-segmental bafes. This bafe combination provides increased tube support for vibration protection, without
increasing pressure drop signicantly.
Strip bafes (Figure 15) are grid bafes formed from at strips that are placed in a crisscross pattern, with a strip after every tube row in both directions. The overall structure is welded to a ring for rigidity and ease of assembly. The strips are notched to lock the tubes in place.
Figure 15 shows square-layout strip bafes. Strip bafes can also accommodate 30-deg. triangular layouts.
For a given tube pitch ratio (i.e., the spacing between tubes divided by the tube outside diameter), 30-deg. layouts have the highest critical velocities prior to uidelastic instability, so tube vibration potential is minimized.
With a bafe contraction ratio of approximately 0.2–0.25, strip bafes produce higher pressure drops per bafe than rod-type bafes (7).
Closing thoughts
Bafing is the most crucial shellside consideration in shell-and-tube heat exchanger design, because bafes regulate shellside uid ow and improve heat transfer while offering signicant tube support. Although TEMA bafes are easier to fabricate, they usually have higher pressure drops than non-TEMA-type bafes. It is equally important to consider how bafe selection affects other shellside parameters, such as tube pitch ratio, tube layout pattern,
tube size, shell type, and shell diameter. A basic understand-ing of the various bafe types and their advantages and disadvantages (Table 1) is essential to choosing an effective bafe conguration.
p Figure 13.Rod-type baffles support the tubes and provide structural rigidity.
X Z Y
p Figure 14.Rod-type baffles may be combined with segmental baffles for better tube support.
Segmental Baffle
2 Rod-Type Baffles per Baffle Space
p Figure 15.Strip baffles have lower baffle contraction ratios and higher pressure drops than rod-type baffles.
X Z Y
SALEM BOUHAIRIE is a research engineer at Heat Transfer Research, Inc. (HTRI) (Email: [email protected]), where he conducts computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations and physical experiments for projects and contracts. He teaches workshops on heat exchanger vibration analysis and conducts webinars on heat exchanger design. Prior to joining HTRI, he worked at Northwest Hydraulic Consultants in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, where he conducted hydraulic structure modeling investiga-tions and river hydrology assessments. He has delivered presentainvestiga-tions on his work in Canada, the U.S., Brazil, Thailand, and Korea, and has published research in the Journal of Fluid Mechanics and the Journal of Hydro-environment Research. Bouhairie earned his BEng, MEng, and PhD in civil engineering from McGill Univ. in Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
T E M A - T y p e B a f fl e s Least expensive
Double-Segmental Lower pressure drop than with single-segmental baffles
Lower heat-transfer rates than with single-segmental baffles
Triple-Segmental Lower pressure drop than with double-segmental baffles
Lower heat-transfer rates than with double-segmental baffles
No-Tubes-in-Window Configuration
All tubes are supported, eliminating tube vibration Higher conversion of pressure drop to shellside heat transfer than single-segmental baffles
Requires a smaller tube bundle and/or larger shell; a larger shell makes this configuration more expensive N o n - T E M A - T y p e B a f fl e s
Helical Less shellside fouling
Moderate heat-transfer rates and pressure drops Minimizes or eliminates areas of stagnant flow Minimizes or eliminates tube vibration
Difficult fabrication, design methods are not standardized
Significant bundle-to-shell bypass at high mass flowrates
Disc-and-Donut Radially symmetric flow distribution Minimizes bypass flow
Same pressure drop as with double-segmental baffles, with better heat transfer
Well suited for gas-gas applications
More expensive than traditional double-segmental baffles
Preferred radial tube layout requires a less-common fabrication method than triangular and square layouts
In a r adial tube layout, the angular gaps between tubes near the shell are larger than those between tubes near the center; this requires the addition of an improvised, nonradial ( e.g., triangular or rotated
square) layout between the radial tube rows
Grid Provides tube support
Uniform flow distribution Relatively low pressure drops
High conversion ratio of pressure drop to heat transfer
Relatively low heat-transfer rates, unless the tubes are long
Specific tube layouts are required
Literature Cited
1. Lestina, T. G., “Selecting a Heat Exchanger Shell,” Chem. Eng. Progress,107 (6), pp. 34–38 (June 2011).
2. Green, D. W., and R. H. Perry, “Heat-Transfer Equipment” in “Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,” 8th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, NY (2008).
3. Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, “Standards of the Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association,” 9th ed., TEMA, New York, NY (2007).
4. Mukerjee, R., “Don’t Let Bafing Bafe You,” Chem. Eng. Progress,92 (4), pp. 72–79 (Apr. 1996).
5. Lutcha, J., and J. Nemcansky, “Performance Improvement of Tubular Heat Exchangers by Helical Bafes,” Trans. IChemE.,
68 (Part A), pp. 263–270 (1990).
6. Taborek, J., “Pressure Drop to Heat Transfer Conversion in Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers with Disk-and-Donut Bafes,” AIChE Spring Meeting, New Orleans, LA (2004).
7. Taborek, J., “Longitudinal Flow in Tube Bundles with Grid Bafes,” in “Heat Exchanger Design Handbook — Part 3, Ther-mal and Hydraulic Design of Heat Exchangers, Section 3.3.12,” Begell House, New York, NY (1998).
Further Reading
Bell, K. J., and A. C. Mueller, “Wolverine Engineering Data Book II,” available at www.wlv.com/products/databook/databook.pdf, Wolverine Tube, Inc., Decatur, AL (2001).
Hewitt, G. F.,et al., “Process Heat Transfer,” CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL (1994).
Hewitt, G. F., ed., “Heat Exchanger Design Handbook,” Begell House, New York, NY (1998).
Kakac, S., and H. Liu, “Heat Exchangers: Selection, Rating, and Thermal Design,” 2nd ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL (2002).
Kern, D., “Process Heat Transfer,” McGraw-Hill, New York, NY (1950).
Rohsenow, W.,et al., “Handbook of Heat Transfer,” 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, NY (1998).
Serth, R. W., “Process Heat Transfer: Principles and Applications,” Elsevier, New York, NY (2007).
Thome, J. R., “Wolverine Engineering Data Book III,” available at www.wlv.com/products/databook/db3/DataBookIII.pdf, Wolver-ine Tube, Inc., Decatur, AL (2004–2010).
Webb, R., “Principles of Enhanced Heat Transfer,” 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, NJ (2005).
