Mentalist

http://www.fox.com/lietome/lightmantests/

http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/theories.htm Neural substrates of basic emotions

Neuropsychology of emotion

In addition to the researchers mentioned in each section, a number of studies have also been conducted in collaboration with Andy Young (University of York), Dave Perrett

(University of St Andrews), andAndrew Lawrence(Cardiff).

Research discussed below addressing the neural underpinnings of fear and disgust are summarised in a review article - 'The Neuropsychology of Fear and Loathing' (Calder, Lawrence, and Young, 2001b; Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2(5), 352-363). Here we argue that brain mechanisms underlying these two emotions are coded by separate, but overlapping systems. A system for fear in which the amygdala appears to be critical, and another for disgust in which the important neural structures are the insula and parts of the basal ganglia (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Research summarised below discusses the involvement of the amygdala in fear processing and insula/basal ganglia regions in disgust processing. This graphic illustrates the position of these structures in the brain.

Impaired recognition of fear and anger following bilateral amygdala damage

An investigation of two cases with bilateral amygdala damage, DR and SE revealed that both have problems in recognising facial expressions of fear, and to a lesser extent anger (Calder et al., 1996b). Additional collaborative projects with Ralph Adolphs (Caltech, USA) and Paul Broks (Plymouth), have confirmed the amygdala's role in processing facial expressions of emotion, and in particular fear (Adolphs et al., 1999; Broks et al., 1998).

A collaborative project with Sophie Scott (University College London), addressed the contribution of the amygdala to the recognition of emotion from vocal cues (Scott et al., 1997) in case DR. Results showed that DR demonstrates an identical pattern in the vocal domain (i.e., impaired recognition of vocal signals of fear and anger), supporting the view that the amygdala contributes to the recognition of these emotions across different

collaborative functional imaging (fMRI) project with Mary Phillips (Institute of Psychiatry) (Phillips et al., 1998), which showed enhanced amygdala signals for facial and vocal signals of fear (see below).

A Neural Response in the Human Amygdala to Fearful Facial Expressions

Collaborative projects with Ray Dolan at the Wellcome Department of Cognitive Neurology, used Positron Emission Tomography (PET) to investigate participants' perception of different intensities of facial expressions of fear and happiness (see

perception of facial expressions page) (Figure 2) (Morris et al, 1996; 1998). The results demonstrated that fear, but not happy facial expressions produced increased rCBF in the amygdala. Moreover, activation in the amygdala was positively correlated with

increasing intensity of facial expressions of fear, and negatively correlated with increasing intensity of facial expressions of happiness (Figure 3).

Figure 2: The two image sequences show examples of the morphed continua used. The sequences ranged between neutral and afraid (top) and neutral and happy (bottom) expressions (100%), and then beyond to caricatured (125%) versions of each expression. Participants viewed examples of the images in a block design. Different levels of

exaggeration of each emotion were presented in separate blocks (i.e., 25% fear images, 75% happy images were shown in separate blocks).

Figure 3: Activation in the amygdala showed a linear relationship with decreasing intensity of happiness and increasing intensity of fear (see Figure 2). A fear minus happy contrast also showed increased rCBF in the amygdala.

Impaired recognition of disgust

Collaborative work with Reiner Sprengelmeyer has demonstrated that Huntington's disease causes a disproportionate impairment in recognising facial expressions of disgust (Sprengelmeyer et al., 1996; Sprengerlmeyer et al., 1997). To investigate further the role of the basal ganglia in coding this emotion, an additional project examined two

psychiatric disorders associated with abnormal metabolic activity in this brain region - obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) and Gilles de la Tourette syndrome (Braun et al., 1995; Rapoport, 1989; Rapoport & Fiske, 1998). The results showed that the OCD group and sub-group of the Tourette's group with co-morbid OCD symptoms showed a

selective impairment in recognising disgust facial expressions. These findings emphasise the role of the basal ganglia in recognising disgust. In addition, it was proposed that the presence of OCD symptoms in the patients' childhood years may have led to a weakened mapping between self-experienced emotion and the facial expressions of others.

Functional imaging studies of disgust

Huntington's disease, OCD and Tourette's syndrome are not characterised by focal neuropathology. Hence, although these patient-based studies point towards the probable involvement of the basal ganglia in disgust, the evidence is indirect. In this respect functional imaging research has been particularly informative. Collaborative work with

Mary Phillips (IOP) (Phillips et al., 1998; Phillips et al., 1997) has identified two areas involved in processing facial expressions of disgust - the insula and the basal ganglia (Figures 4&5). Insula involvement is particularly interesting given its identified role in

showing that lesions to the insula or pallidum of rats interferes with conditioned taste aversion (Dunn & Everitt, 1988; Hernadi, Zaradi, Faludi, & Lenard, 1997). Together these findings concur with Rozin and colleagues' (Rozin & Fallon, 1987; Rozin, Lowery, & Ebert, 1994) proposal that disgust has developed from a more primitive system

involved in distaste.

Figure 4: Examples of stimuli used by Phillips et al (1997). Two levels of disgust and fear expressions were used â€" morphed (blended) images containing 75% of the expression and 25% neutral, and 150% caricatures of the expressions (see perception of facial expressions page). The baseline condition contained morphs composed of 25% happiness and 75% neutral.

Figure 5: Left - the neural correlates of viewing disgust facial expressions (disgust minus baseline [25% happy condition]) for both 75% and 150% disgust images. Both show significant signals in the insula and basal ganglia. Right â€" anterior insula activation

associated with the 150% disgust minus 75% disgust contrast. Contrasts involving the fear expressions replicated the involvement of the amygdala discussed above (Figure 3).

A cross-model system for recognising disgust

We have provided further evidence for the role of the insula/basal ganglia regions in processing disgust in the form of a case study of a man (NK) with a focal lesion affecting these areas (Calder, Keane, Manes, Antoun, & Young, 2000b). NK's damage is

lateralised to the left and includes the insula, putamen, internal capsule, globus pallidus, and the head of the caudate (Figure 6). NK showed highly selective impairments in recognising disgust from facial and vocal cues; his self-reported experience of disgust was also significantly reduced. NK's results are consistent with damage to a system involved in both the recognition of disgust from different sensory modalities and the experience of this emotion.

Figure 6: Axial (left) and coronal (right) T1-weighted MR images showing a left

hemisphere infarction involving the posterior part of the anterior insula, posterior insula, internal capsule, the putamen and the globus pallidus. Coronal (right) image also shows damage to the head of the caudate nucleus. To aid interpretation, the intact right putamen (P) and intact right globus pallidus (GP) (axial section (left)), and intact right head of caudate (CN) (coronal section (right)) have been traced. Insula lesion is identified by a white arrow (I).

Differential effects of ageing on the recognition of fear and disgust

In line with the proposal that separate neural systems underlie the recognition of fear and disgust, we have found differential effects of ageing on the recognition of these emotions (Calder et al., 2002). On two tests of facial expression recognition with five age groups ranging from 20-30 years to 60-70 years, increasing age produced a progressive reduction in the recognition of fear and, to a lesser extent, anger. In contrast, older participants showed absolutely no reduction in recognition of facial expressions of disgust, rather there was evidence of an improvement. Recognition of other facial expressions showed no significant evidence of deterioration (or enhancement) across age groups. These results are consistent with the differential effects of ageing on two brain regions

medial temporal pathology (including the amygdala) is a consequence of normal ageing (Anderton, 1997), while fMRI research has demonstrated reduced amygdala activation to negative facial expressions with increasing age (Iidaka et al., 2001). In contrast, the gross structure and neurochemistry of a region of the basal ganglia implicated in taste aversion (Hernadi et al., 1997), OCD, and fMRI studies of disgust (Calder et al., 2002), is largely spared by ageing (Raz, 2000).

The contribution of frontal systems to facial expression recognition

The work discussed above identifies separate neural mechanisms involved in processing fear (amygdala) and disgust (insula and basal ganglia). Other studies, however, have emphasised the important role of the frontal lobes in processing emotional cues in general, and some have suggested that the systems involved in coding individual

emotions may feed into more general emotion systems in frontal cortex (Sprengelmeyer, Rausch, Eysel, & Przuntek, 1998). If this is correct, then we would expect to see general emotion recognition impairments following frontal cortex damage. We recently

investigated this issue in a case series of patients with frontal variant frontotemporal dementia (fvFTD) (Keane, Calder, Hodges, & Young, 2002), a condition that largely affects the frontal regions of the brain but particularly the ventromedial frontal lobes. The results showed that fvFTD was associated with impaired recognition of a number of emotions from both facial and auditory cues. In contrast, there was no evidence of

impaired recognition of identity from faces. These results emphasise a role for the frontal lobes in processing emotional cues from different sensory modalities. In addition, they suggest that previous reports of impaired facial expression recognition in the absence of impaired facial identity recognition, may have been incorrect to interpret this pattern as the antithesis of prosopagnosia (impaired facial identity recognition). Rather, as

suggested by the results of the fvFTD study, this pattern may instead reflect impaired recognition of emotion.

Perceptual and motor codes involved in facial expression recognition

It is tempting to think of the perceptual mechanisms underlying facial expression recognition as analogous to those for facial identity. However, we should be cautious of adopting this view for a number of reasons. Foremost amongst these is that we not only recognise expressions in other people's faces, we generate them ourselves. Hence, in addition to a visual code, the mental representation of facial expressions has the added requirement of a motor-program code (to produce the expression). The extent to which these two codes interact is unclear. To investigate this issue, we studied a group of participants with a rare congenital disorder that causes facial diplegia (Möbius

Syndrome) (Calder, Keane, Cole, Campbell, & Young, 2000a), meaning that they have never produced facial expressions. Anecdotal reports had suggested that this group are severely impaired at recognising facial expressions, but until now, there has been no systematic research. We found no evidence of marked deficits in facial expression

recognition in the Möbius individuals. These findings demonstrate that there is minimal interaction between motor-code and visual representations for facial expression

recognition.

We have explored the role of eye gaze in social interaction using functional imaging (PET) (Calder et al., 2002). This initial study investigated Baron-Cohen's (1997) proposal that the interpretation of gaze plays an important role in a normal functioning theory of mind (ToM) system. Consistent with this proposal, previous functional imaging research has shown that both ToM and eye gaze tasks engage a similar region of posterior superior temporal sulcus (STS). However, a second, more prominent brain region associated with ToM, the medial prefrontal (MPF) cortex, had not been identified by the eye gaze research. Certain methodological issues that might account for the absence of MPF activation in these experiments were identified, and a PET study that controlled for these factors addressed the neural correlates of processing direct and averted gaze. The results showed that the MPF regions associated with ToM were indeed involved in processing gaze, but particularly averted gaze (Figure 7). Moreover, because participants were not explicitly asked to attend to the faces' gaze, the study demonstrates that simply viewing a face with averted gaze is sufficient to engage the mechanisms involved in ToM.

Figure 7: Medial frontal region (BA 8/9) involved in viewing faces with averted gaze.

Selective impairment in anger recognition

A collaborative project with Andrew Lawrence (CBU) investigated the neurochemical basis of emotion perception. Offensive aggression occurs in the context of

resource/dominance disputes in a wide variety of species. Hence, the possibility arises that a specific neural system may have evolved to detect and coordinate responses to this specific form of threat. The dopamine system has been implicated in the processing of social signals of offensive aggression in social-agonistic encounters in several species. In this study, we found that dopaminergic antagonism in healthy male volunteers, following acute administration of the dopamine D2-class receptor antagonist sulpiride, produced a selective disruption in the recognition of facial expressions of anger, signals of offensive aggression in humans. In contrast, recognition of other emotions and the matching of unfamiliar faces, were not significantly affected.

thinkers to the present day. Most psychologists can probably agree on a description of emotion, e.g., what

phenomena to include in a discussion of emotion. The enumeration of these parts of emotion are called the "components of emotion" here. These components are distinguished on the basis of physiological or psychological factors and include emotion faces, emotion elicitors, and emotion neural processes.

Components of Emotion

The component that seems to be the core of common sense approaches to emotion, the one that most people have in mind when talking about human emotions, is the feeling component, i.e., the passion or sensation of emotion. For example, people generally agree that the state of mind during anger is different from that when one is happy. This component is also one of the most

contentious in scientific discussions of emotion, raising many questions such as:

• to what extent are such feelings, especially the claimed differences in

quality, based on real physical differences?

• is the feeling quality of a particular emotion shared among people? • what is the nature of the differences in quality among emotions? • what underlies or produces these feelings?

• what importance or function do such feelings have?

Another obvious descriptive component of emotion is the set of behaviors that may be performed and observed in conjunction with an emotion. These

behaviors are produced by the striated muscular system and are of two general types: gross behaviors of the body effected by the skeletal muscles and the so-called emotion expressions. These categories shade into each other because any behavior can be interpreted as expressing emotion. The gross body

behaviors may have no apparent adaptive value, e.g., wringing and rubbing the hands or tapping a foot, or they may be directed towards a goal, e.g., striking something or running away. In the field of animal behavior, discovering the

adaptive function and organization of behaviors in situations analogous to human emotion, and speculating on the evolutionary patterns of these behaviors is an established endeavor. This emphasis has not typically been given to the study of human emotions by psychologists. The facial and bodily behaviors called

Common representation of angry emotion experience: "steamed up" with hot glowing eyes, and uncontrolled

appearance. Is it the same across people?

Interpersonal aggression in the form of instrumental behaviors produced by skeletal muscles is often a concomitant of anger.

A bright idea can bring a pleasant emotion, or pleasant emotions can foster bright ideas.

action or achieving some goal. These expressions can differentiate one emotion from another. The most widely discussed and

investigated emotion expressions are the emotion faces (see the

examples of emotional expressions).

A less obvious component of emotion is the set of internal bodily changes caused by the smooth muscles and glands. Chemicals secreted by the body's various glands are activated during emotion and spread to other parts of the body, usually by the blood, to act in diverse ways on the nervous system and other organs. Smooth muscles of the digestive system, circulatory system, and other bodily

components can shift from their typical level or type of operation during emotion under the effects of chemical and neural action. This component includes some behaviors that can be observed, such as the constriction or dilation of the iris of the eye, possibly piloerection, and sweating, blanching, and flushing of the skin, and other responses that are relatively hidden, such as heart rate, stomach

activity, and saliva production. Another less observable component in emotion consists of the ideation, imagery, and thoughts that occur during emotion. These aspects of emotion are also cognitive activities, and can both give rise to an

emotional event and be affected by it, e.g., thinking about a lost pet may evoke feelings of sadness, which may in turn evoke memories of a romance now finished. Since thoughts and other cognitions, like feelings, cannot be directly observed and are hard to measure, there is less understanding of how they fit into the emotion picture than other components.

The circumstances that give rise to emotions comprise another component, called the "elicitors" of emotion. These elicitors might be internal or external to the organism, e.g., a frightening pain in one's chest or a frightening dog at one's heels. Some events seem to activate similar emotion in people of all cultures, for example, the death of one's own child typically elicits sadness. Other things, such as what foods are relished or rejected with disgust, vary widely according to acculturation.

Finally, the neural processes that underlie much of the preceding activities can be considered a component of the emotion process, especially how the neurons and their emotional concomitants are organized centrally in the brain. Many contemporary research studies, and thus a lot of the research money, is focussed on anatomical and functional aspects of brain activity in regard to Adrenalin is a secretion that affects many organs and

may contribute to the felt quality of emotion.

Theories of Emotion

Beyond the descriptive approach to emotion, there are theories of emotion, which attempt to specify the interrelationships among components as described above and the causes, sources, and functions of emotional responses. Disagreement characterizes the intellectual climate surrounding emotion theories, but there are several works in print that summarize these approaches for the interested reader. The Theories of Emotion page of this section summarizes some of the most important theoretical statements on emotion that emphasize the role of the face. Expression of Emotion

Emotion expression is another area of controversy, but at the descriptive level, some behaviors tend to occur with other components of emotion, and seem to reveal the quality of the emotion to an observer. The Emotion Expressions page of this section discusses the relations between emotion and facial expression.

Emotion and Facial Expression

Neither emotion nor its expression are concepts universally embraced by psychologists. The term "expression" implies the existence of something that is expressed. Some psychologists deny that there is really any specific organic state that corresponds to our naive ideas about human emotions; thus, its expression is a non sequitur. Other psychologists think that the behaviors referenced by the term "expression" are part of an organized emotional

response, and thus, the term "expression" captures these behaviors' role less adequately than a reference to it as an aspect of the emotion reaction. Still other psychologists think that facial expressions have primarily a communicative function and convey something about intentions or internal state, and they find the connotation of the term "expression" useful. Some of these theoretical views are discussed briefly on the Theories of Emotion page. Regardless of approach, certain facial expressions are associated with particular human emotions.

Research shows that people categorize emotion faces in a similar way across cultures, that similar facial expressions tend to occur in response to particular emotion eliciting events, and that people produce simulations of emotion faces that are characteristic of each specific emotion. Despite some unsettled

theoretical implications of these findings, a consensus view is that in studies of human emotions, it is often useful to know what facial expressions correspond to each specific emotion, and the answer is summarized briefly below.

To match a facial expression with an emotion implies knowledge of the categories of human emotions into which expressions can be assigned. For millennia, scholars have speculated about categories of emotion, and recent scientific research has shown that facial expressions can be assigned reliably to about seven categories, though many other categories of human emotions are possible and used by philosophers, scientists, actors, and others concerned with emotion. The recent development of scientific tools for facial analysis, such as

most robust categories are discussed in the following paragraphs. This page shows some thumbnails of emotion faces, and there are links to other emotion faces. Click on the thumbnail image for each emotion category to access other facial expression illustrations and facial analysis commentary on the expressive elements of each emotion face.

Happy

Happy expressions are universally and easily recognized, and are interpreted as conveying messages related to enjoyment, pleasure, a positive disposition, and friendliness. Examples of happy expressions are the easiest of all emotions to find in photographs, and are readily

produced by people on demand in the absence of any emotion. In fact, happy expressions may be practiced behaviors because they are used so often to hide other emotions and deceive or manipulate other people. Consider this point when viewing invariably smiling political figures and other celebrities on television. Detecting genuine happy expressions may be as valuable as producing good simulations. Some of the differences in genuine versus false smiles are shown in the action of zygomatic major in Expression section, and more illustrations are available by clicking the happy thumbnail on the right.

Sad

Sad expressions are often conceived as opposite to happy ones, but this view is too simple, although the action of the mouth corners is opposite. Sad expressions convey messages related to loss, bereavement, discomfort, pain, helplessness, etc. Until recently,

American culture contained a strong censure against public displays of sadness by men, which may account for the relative ease of finding pictures of sad expressions on female faces. A common sense view, shared by many

psychologists, is that sad emotion faces are lower intensity forms of crying faces, which can be observed early in newborns, but differences noted between these two expressions challenge this view, though both are related to distress.

Although weeping and tears are a common concommitant of sad expressions, tears are not indicative of any particular emotion, as in tears of joy.

Anger

Anger expressions are seen increasingly often in modern society, as daily stresses and frustrations underlying anger seem to increase, but the expectation of reprisals decrease with the higher sense of personal security. Anger is a primary concomitant of interpersonal aggression,

and its expression conveys messages about hostility, opposition, and potential attack. Anger is a common response to anger expressions, thus creating a positive feedback loop and increasing the likelihood of dangerous conflict. Until recent times, a cultural prohibition on expression of anger by women, particularly uncontrolled rage expressions, created a distribution of anger expressions that differed between the sexes. The uncontrolled expression of rage exerts a toxic effect on the angry person, and chronic anger seems associated with certain

behavior. Although frequently associated with violence and destruction, anger is probably the most socially constructive emotion as it often underlies the efforts of individuals to shape societies into better, more just environments, and to resist the imposition of injustice and tyranny.

Fear

Fear expressions are not often seen in societies where good personal security is typical, because the imminent possibility of personal

destruction, from interpersonal violence or impersonal dangers, is the primary elicitor of fear. Fear expressions convey information about

imminent danger, a nearby threat, a disposition to flee, or likelihood of bodily harm. The specific objects that can elicit fear for any individual are varied. The experience of fear has an extremely negative felt quality, and is reduced, along with the bodily concommitants, when the threat has been avoided or has passed. Organization of behavior and cogitive functions are adversely affected during fear, as escape becomes the peremptory goal. Anxiety is related to fear, and may involve some of the same bodily responses, but is a longer term mood and the elicitors are not as immediate. Both are associated with unhealthy physical effects if prolonged.

Disgust

Disgust expressions are often part of the body's responses to objects that are revolting and nauseating, such as rotting flesh, fecal matter and insects in food, or other offensive materials that are rejected as suitable to eat. Obnoxious smells are effective in eliciting disgust

reactions. Disgust expressions are often displayed as a commentary on many other events and people that generate adverse reactions, but have nothing to do with the primal origin of disgust as a rejection of possible foodstuffs.

Surprise

Surprise expressions are fleeting, and difficult to detect or record in real time. They almost always occur in response to events that are unanticipated, and they convey messages about something being unexpected, sudden, novel, or amazing. The brief surprise expression is often followed by other expressions that reveal emotion in response to the surprise feeling or to the object of surprise, emotions such as happiness or fear. For example, most of us have been surprised, perhaps intentionally, by people who appear suddenly or do something unexpected ("to scare you"), and elicit surprise, but if the person is a friend, a typical after-emotion is happiness; but if a stranger, fear. A surprise seems to act like a reset switch that shifts our attention. Surprise expressions occur far less often than people are disposed to say "that surprises me," etc., because in most cases, such phrases indicate a simile, not an emotion. Nevertheless, intellectual insights can elicit actual felt surprise and may spur scholarly achievements. Surprise is to be distinguished from startle, and their expressions are quite different.

Some psychologists have differentiated other emotions and their expressions from those mentioned above. These other emotion or related expressions include contempt, shame, and startle. Contempt is related to disgust, and involves some of the same actions, but differs from it, in part, because its elicitors are different and its actions are more asymmetrical. Shame also has a relation to disgust according to some psychologists, but recent evidence suggests it may have a distinct expression. Most psychologists consider startle to be different from any human emotions, more like a reflex to intense sudden stimulation. The startle expression is unique.

Robert Plutchik created a wheel of emotions in 1980 which consisted of 8 basic emotions and 8 advanced emotions each composed of 2 basic ones.[1]

Basic emotion Basic opposite

Joy Sadness Trust Disgust Fear Anger Surprise Anticipation Sadness Joy Disgust Trust Anger Fear Anticipation Surprise

Advanced emotion Composed of... Advanced opposite

Optimism Anticipation + Joy Disappointment

Love Joy + Trust Remorse

Submission Trust + Fear Contempt

Awe Fear + Surprise Aggressiveness

Disappointment Surprise + Sadness Optimism

Remorse Sadness + Disgust Love

Contempt Disgust + Anger Submission

Aggressiveness Anger + AnticipationAwe [edit] Emotions by groups

Here is a categorised, tree structured list of emotions as described in Parrot (2001).[2][3]

Primary emotion

Secondary

emotion Tertiary emotions

Love

Affection Adoration, fondness, liking, attraction, caring, tenderness, _{compassion, sentimentality} Lust/Sexual

desire Arousal, desire, lust, passion, infatuation Longing Longing

Joy

Cheerfulness

Amusement, bliss, cheerfulness, gaiety, glee, jolliness, joviality, joy, delight, enjoyment, gladness, happiness, jubilation, elation, satisfaction, ecstasy, euphoria

Zest Enthusiasm, zeal, zest, excitement, thrill, exhilaration

Contentment Contentment, pleasure

Pride Pride, triumph

Optimism Eagerness, hope, optimism

Enthrallment Enthrallment, rapture

Relief Relief

Surprise Surprise Amazement, surprise, astonishment

Anger

Irritation Aggravation, irritation, agitation, annoyance, grouchiness,

grumpiness, crosspatch Exasperation Exasperation, frustration

Rage

Anger, rage, outrage, fury, wrath, hostility, ferocity, bitterness, hate, scorn, spite, vengefulness, dislike, resentment

Disgust Disgust, revulsion, contempt, loathing

Envy Envy, jealousy

Torment Torment

sadness, unhappiness, grief, sorrow, woe, misery, melancholy

Disappointment Dismay, disappointment, displeasure

Shame Guilt, shame, regret, remorse

Neglect Alienation, isolation, neglect, loneliness, rejection, homesickness, defeat, dejection, insecurity, embarrassment,

humiliation, insult

Sympathy Pity, sympathy

Fear

Horror Alarm, shock, fear, fright, horror, terror, panic, hysteria,

mortification

Nervousness Anxiety, nervousness, tenseness, uneasiness, apprehension, _{worry, distress, dread} [edit] In artificial languages

[edit] EARL

The HUMAINE Emotion Annotation and Representation Language (EARL) classifies the following 48 emotions.[4]

• Negative and forceful

o Anger

o Annoyance o Contempt o Disgust o Irritation

• Negative and not in control

o Anxiety o Embarrassment o Fear o Helplessness o Powerlessness o Worry • Negative thoughts o Doubt o Envy o Frustration o Guilt o Shame

• Negative and passive

o Boredom o Despair o Disappointment o Hurt o Sadness • Agitation o Stress o Shock o Tension

• Positive and lively

o Amusement

o Delight o Elation o Excitement o Happiness

• Caring o Affection o Empathy o Friendliness o Love • Positive thoughts o Courage o Hope o Pride o Satisfaction o Trust • Quiet positive o Calm o Content o Relaxed o Relieved o Serene • Reactive o Interest o Politeness o Surprised http://changingminds.org/techniques/body/parts_body_language/parts_body_language.ht m

Using Body Language

Message clusters | Core patterns | Parts-of-body language | Other notes | See also

Body language is an important part of communication which can constitute 50% or more of what we are communicating. If you wish to communicate well, then it makes sense to understand how you can (and cannot) use your body to say what you mean.

Message clusters

Body language comes in clusters of signals and postures, depending on the internal emotions and mental states. Recognizing a whole cluster is thus far more reliable than trying to interpret individual elements.

• Aggressive body language : Showing physical threat.

• Attentive body language : Showing real interest.

• Bored body language : Just not being interested.

• Closed body language : Many reasons are closed.

• Deceptive body language : Seeking to cover up lying or other

deception.

• Defensive body language : Protecting self from attack.

• Dominant body language : Dominating others.

• Open body language : Many reasons for being open.

• Power body language : Demonstrating one's power.

• Ready body language : Wanting to act and waiting for the trigger.

• Relaxed body language : Comfortable and unstressed.

• Romantic body language : Showing attraction to others.

• Submissive body language : Showing you are prepared to give in.

Core patterns

A number of core patterns can be identified that include clusters of body movements:

• Crossing , Expanding, Moving away, Moving forward, Opening,

Preening, Repeating, Shaping, Striking and Touching

Parts-of-the-body language

You can send signals with individual parts of the body as well as in concert. Here's details of the contributions of each part of the body.

• Head : Face, Cheek, Chin, Mouth, Lips, Teeth, Tongue, Nose, Eyes,

Eyebrow, Forehead, Hair

• Arm : Elbow, Hand, Finger

• Torso: Neck, Shoulder, Chest, Back, Belly, Bottom, Hips

• Legs : Thigh, Knee, Foot

Other notes

Remember that body language varies greatly with people and especially with international cultures (so be very careful when applying Western understanding to Eastern non-verbal language).

• Body as Cue, Evidence, Persuasion : How we shape changes how we

feel.

• Body language caveat : You can't control all of your muscles. So why

bother?

• Emphasis with body language : Adding emphasis to what you are

saying.

• Social distances : The space between us.

• Touching : Using physical touch.

Aggressive body language

Body positions | Gestures | See also

A significant cluster of body movements is used to signal aggression.

This is actually quite useful as it is seldom a good idea to get into a fight, even for powerful people. Fighting can hurt you, even though you are pretty certain you will

win. In addition, with adults, fighting is often socially unacceptable and aggression through words and body language is all that may ever happen.

Threat

Facial signals

Much aggression can be shown in the face, from disapproving frowns and pursed lips to sneers and full snarls. The eyes can be used to stare and hold the gaze for long period. They may also squint, preventing the other person seeing where you are looking.

Attack signals

When somebody is about to attack, they give visual signal such as clenching of fists ready to strike and lowering and spreading of the body for stability. They are also likely to give anger signs such as redness of the face.

Exposing oneself

Exposing oneself to attack is also a form of aggression. It is saying 'Go on - I dare you. I will still win.' It can include not looking at the other person, crotch displays, relaxing the body, turning away and so on.

Invasion

Invading the space of the other person in some way is an act of aggression that is equivalent to one country invading another.

False friendship

Invasion is often done under the cloak of of familiarity, where you act as if you are being friendly and move into a space reserved for friends, but without being invited. This gives the other person a dilemma of whether to repel a 'friendly' advance or to accept dominance of the other.

Approach

When you go inside the comfort zone of others without permission, you are effectively invading their territory. The close you get, the greater your ability to have 'first strike', from which an opponent may not recover.

Touching

Touching the person is another form of invasion. Even touching social touch zones such as arm and back can be aggressive.

Gestures

Insulting gestures

There are many, many gestures that have the primary intent of insulting the other person and hence inciting them to anger and a perhaps unwise battle. Single and double fingers pointed up, arm thrusts, chin tilts and so on are used, although many of these do vary across cultures (which can make for hazardous accidental movements when you are overseas).

Many gestures are sexual in nature, indicating that the other person should go away and fornicate, that you (or someone else) are having sex with their partner, and so on.

Gestures may include symbolic action that mimics actual attacks, including waving fingers (the beating baton), shaking fists, head-butts, leg-swinging and so on. This is saying 'Here is what I will do to you!'

Physical items may be used as substitutes, for example banging of tables and doors or throwing . Again, this is saying 'This could be you!'

Sudden movements

All of these gestures may be done suddenly, signaling your level of aggression and testing the other person's reactions.

Large gestures

The size of gestures may also be used to signal levels of aggression, from simple finger movements to whole arm sweeps, sometimes even with exaggerated movements of the entire body.

Attentive body language

Listening | Wanting more | See also

When you are in conversation or otherwise attending to what others are saying or doing, you body sends signals to the other person as to how interested you really are. Attentive body language sends a strong signal of real and deep interest that is both flattering and likely to result in reciprocal attention.

It was said that if you met with the English 19th century politician William Gladstone, you would come away thinking he was the most intelligent and witty person in the country. If, however, you met his peer Benjamin Disraeli, then you would come away thinking that you were the most intelligent and witty person. Disraeli, it would seem, was somewhat more skilled at paying attention.

Listening

A person who is attentive is first of all listening. This can be of varying intensity though attentive listening is deep and interested.

Ignoring distractions

There are many competing stimuli that demand our attention. If a person ignores distraction, from phone calls to other people interrupting, then they send strong and flattering 'I am interested in you' signals.

Stillness

Body movement often betrays distracting thoughts and feelings. When the listener is largely still, the implication is of forgetting everything else except the other person, with not even internal dialogue being allowed to distract.

Leaning forward

When I am interested in you and what you have to say I will likely lean slightly towards you, perhaps better to hear everything you have to say.

An attentive head may be tilted slightly forward. It also may show curiosity when tilted to the side (although this may also indicate uncertainty).

Gaze

An attentive person looks at the other person without taking their gaze away. They will likely blink less, almost for fear of missing something.

Furrowed brow

Concentration may also be shown in the forehead as the eyebrows are brought together as the listener seeks to hear and understand the other person.

Wanting more

An attentive person seeks not just to hear but to be ready to listen to everything the other person has to say.

Patience

When you want to hear more from the other person you are patient, listening until they have finished speaking and not butting in with your views. Even when you have something to say or when they pause, you still patiently seek a full understanding of them and give them space in which to complete what they have to say.

Open body

Open body language shows that you are not feeling defensive and are mentally open to what they have to say (and hence not closed to their thoughts).

Slow nodding

Nodding shows agreement and also encourages the other person to keep talking. Fast nodding may show impatience, whilst a slower nod indicates understanding and approval.

Interest noises

Little noises such as 'uh huh' and 'mmm' show that you are interested, understand and want to hear more. They thus encourage the other person to keep talking.

Reflecting

When you reflect the other person back to them they feel affirmed and that you are

aligned with them. Reflecting activities range from matching body language to

paraphrasing what they say.

Bored body language

Techniques > Using body language > Bored body language

Language of boredom | Reasons for boredom | See also

When a person is bored, they whole body is telling you. So if you are trying to persuade them, don't bother (unless you are trying to bore them into submission).

Language of boredom

Distraction

A bored person looks anywhere but at the person who is talking to them. They find other things to do, from doodling to talking with others to staring around the room.

Repetition

Bored people often repeat actions such as tapping toes, swinging feet or drumming fingers. The repetition may escalate as they try to signal their boredom.

Tiredness

A person who feels that they are unable to act to relieve their boredom may show signs of tiredness. They may yawn and their whole body may sag as they slouch down in their seat, lean against a wall or just sag where they are standing. Their face may also show a distinct lack of interest and appear blank.

Reasons for boredom

Lack of interest

If the person is not interested in their surroundings or what is going on, then they may become bored. The disinterest may also be feigned if they do not want you to see that they are interested. Watch for leaking signs of readiness in these cases.

Readiness

A bored person may actually be ready for the actions you want, such as closing a sale. Sales people are known to keep on the sales patter long after the customer is ready to sign on the dotted line.

Closed body language

Techniques > Using body language > Closed body language

Language of closure | Reasons for closing | See also

A significant cluster of body movements are all about closing. This is sometimes misinterpreted solely as indicating defensiveness.

Language of closure

Closure literally closes the body up. It may range from a slight bringing together of the limbs to curled up into a tight ball. Extreme cases may also include rhythmic rocking of the body to and fro.

Arms across

In a closed positions one or both arms cross the central line of the body. They may be folded or tightly clasped or holding one another. There may also be holding one another.

Lighter arm crossing may include resting an arm on a table or leg, or loosely crossed with wrists crossing.

Varying levels of tension may be seen in the arms and shoulders, from a relaxed droop to tight tension and holding on to the body or other arms.

Legs across

Legs, likewise can be crossed. There are several styles of leg crossing, including the ankle cross, the knee cross, the figure-four (ankle on opposite knee) and the tense wrap-around.

When legs are crossed but arms are not, it can show deliberate attempts to appear relaxed. This is particularly true when legs are hidden under a table.

Looking down or away

The head may be inclined away from the person, and particularly may be tucked down.

Reasons for closing

There can be several reasons for closed body language. This is one reason why reading body language can be hazardous and you should take into account other factors. In particular look for the transition when the body closes and the triggers that may have caused this change.

Defending

When we feel threatened, our body language becomes defensive. We use closure to place the barriers of our arms and legs across in front of us to defend ourselves from attack. When we close, we also make our body smaller, reducing the size of the target. When we tuck our chin down, we are protecting the exposed throat.

We also may be signaling to the other person that we are not a threat to them. Thus the held-in arms shows that we are not attacking and looking away from them removes aggressive staring.

In a variant of this, particularly where the person is holding themselves, a closed position may indicate self-nurturing. The person is effectively holding or hugging themselves in an imitation of a parent or other caring person.

Hiding

Closing also may serve the purpose of hiding something that we do not want the other person to see. Holding the body still prevents it from betraying our thoughts. Looking away prevents the other person from seeing our expression that may show dislike or lying.

Cold

A more pragmatic form of closure is when we are cold. Huddling up reduces exposed body area and reduces heat loss. Holding warmer parts of the body against colder parts evens the temperature and prevents extremities from being chilled too much.

Relaxing

And we also cross our arms and legs when we are relaxing. It can just be a comfortable place to put those gangly limbs. We may look away because we are thinking, nothing more.

Opening

When you are trying to persuade a person, then their standing or sitting in a closed position is usually a signal that they are not ready to be persuaded. Moving them to an open position can significantly increase your chances of persuading them.

Force hand use

A common method sales people use to break a crossed-arms closed position is to give the person something to hold or otherwise ask them to use their hands, for example asking them to hand over something, turn over a page, stand up and so on.

The other common method of opening a person is to first adopt a closed position like them. Then some effort is put into building a bond with them, such that they start to like you and are attaching their identity to yours. Finally, you then open your position, unfolding arms and legs. If they are sufficiently bonded then they will follow you. This should be done naturally and steadily, for example unfolding your arms in order to use your hands to illustrate what you are saying. If they do not follow you, return to the closed position and work further at bonding before trying again.

Deceptive body language

Language of deception | Reasons for deception | See also

When a person is seeking to trick or deceive you, they there are many different body signal they may use.

Language of deception

A deceptive body is concerned about being found out -- and this concern may show.

Anxiety

A deceptive person is typically anxious that they might be found out (unless they are psychopathic or good at acting), so they may send signals of tension. This may include sweating, sudden movements, minor twitches of muscles (especially around the mouth and eyes), changes in voice tone and speed.

Many of us have hidden anxiety signals. For example: Biting the inside of the mouth (George W. Bush), patting head (Prince William), hands in pockets (Tony Blair). These signals are almost impossible to stop as we start them very young.

Do remember that anxiety can be caused by many other factors other than deceptiveness.

Control

In order to avoid being caught, there may be various signs of over-control. For example, there may be signs of attempted friendly body language, such as forced smiles (mouth smiles but eyes do not), jerky movements and clumsiness or oscillation between open body language and defensive body language.

The person may also try to hold their body still, to avoid tell-tale signals. For example they may hold their arms in or put their hands in their pockets. This can be particularly seen when they emphasizing something with their voice and their body does not align, showing limited (or exaggerated) emphasis.

Distracted

A person who is trying to deceive needs to think more about what they are doing, so they may drift off or pause as they think about what to say or hesitate during speech. They may also be distracted by the need to cover up. Thus their natural timing may go astray and they may over- or under-react to events.

Anxiety may be displaced into actions such as fidgeting, moving around the place or paying attention to unusual places.

Reasons for deception

There can be many good reasons for deception.

Persuading

Deception may be an act that is intended to get another person to say or do something.

Avoiding detection

Deception also may be more self-oriented, where the sole goal is to get away with something, perhaps by avoiding answering incriminating questions.

Defensive body language

Defending from attack | Pre-empting attack | See also

When a person is feeling threatened in some ways, they will take defensive body postures.

Defending from attack

The basic defensive body language has a primitive basis and assumes that the other person will physically attack, even when this is highly unlikely.

Covering vital organs and points of vulnerability

In physical defense, the defensive person will automatically tend to cover those parts of the body that could damaged by an attack.

The chin is held down, covering the neck. The groin is protected with knees together, crossed legs or covering with hands. The arms may be held across the chest or face.

Fending off

Arms may be held out to fend off attacker, possibly straight out or curved to deflect incoming attacks.

Using a barrier

Any physical object may be placed held in front of the person to act as a literal or figurative barrier. This can be a small as a pen or as large as a table. Straddling a reversed chair makes some people comfortable in conversation as they look relaxed whilst feeling defensive.

Barriers can also protect the other person and if I am powerful, I may use a simple barrier to make you feel less defensive. It also means I control the barrier.

Becoming small

One way of defending against attack is to reduce the size of the target. People may thus huddle into a smaller position, keeping their arms and legs in.

Rigidity

Another primitive response is to tense up, making the muscles harder in order to withstand a physical attack.

Rigidity also freezes the body, possibly avoiding movements being noticed or being interpreted as preparing for attack.

Seeking escape

Pre-empting attack

Giving in

Pre-empting the attack, the defensive person may reduce the, generally using

submissive body language, avoiding looking at the other person, keeping the head down and possibly crouching into a lower body position.

Attacking first

Aggressive body language may also appear, as the person uses 'attack as the best form of defense'. The body may thus be erect, thrust forward and with attacking movements. Where attack and defense both appear together, there may be conflicting signs

appearing together. Thus the upper body may exhibit aggression whilst the legs are twisted together.

Dominant body language

Size | Superiority | Greeting | Responding | See also

Dominant body language is related to aggressive body language, though with a less emotional content.

Size signals

The body in dominant stances is generally open, and may also include additional aspects.

Making the body big

Hands on hips makes the elbows go wide and make the body seem larger. So also does standing upright and erect, with the chin up and the chest thrust out. Legs may be placed apart to increase size.

Making the body high

Height is also important as it gives an attack advantage. This can be achieved by standing up straight or somehow getting the other person lower than you, for example by putting them on a lower seat or by your standing on a step or plinth.

Occupying territory

By invading and occupying territory that others may own or use, control and dominance is indicated. A dominant person may thus stand with feet akimbo and hands on hips.

Superiority signals

Breaking social rules

Rulers do not need to follow rules: they make the rules. This power to decide one's own path is often displayed in breaking of social rules, from invasion and interruption to casual swearing in polite company.

Ownership

Owning something that others covet provides a status symbol. This can be territorial, such as a larger office, or displays of wealth or power, such as a Rolex watch or having many subordinates.

Just owning things is an initial symbol, but in body language it is the flaunting of these, often casually, that is the power display. Thus a senior manager will casually take out their Mont Blanc pen whilst telling their secretary to fetch the Havana cigars.

Invasion

A dominant act is to disrespect the ownership of others, invading their territory, for example getting to close to them by moving into their body space. Other actions include sitting on their chairs, leaning on their cars, putting feet up on their furniture and being over-friendly with their romantic partners.

Invasion says 'What's yours is mine' and 'I can take anything of yours that I want and you cannot stop me'.

Belittling others

Superiority signals are found both in saying 'I am important' and also 'You are not important'. Thus a dominant person may ignore or interrupt another person who is speaking or turn away from them. They may also criticize the inferior person, including when the other person can hear them.

Facial signals

Much dominance can be shown in the face, from disapproving frowns and pursed lips to sneers and snarls (sometimes disguised as smiles).

The eyes can be used to stare and hold the gaze for long period. They may also squint, preventing the other person seeing where you are looking. They may also look at anywhere but the other person, effectively saying that 'you are not even worth looking at'.

Faces can also look bored, amused or express other expressions that belittle the other person.

Dominant people often smile much less than submissive people.

Phallic displays

Dominant men will often expose their crotch, effectively saying to other men 'I am safe from attack' or 'my penis is bigger than yours', whilst showing off. They may also be offering 'come and get it!' to women. When women do this, it is to some extent a tease or invitation to men but may also be an emulation of the male display, thus saying 'I am as strong as a man'.

This appears in standing or sitting where the legs are apart. It may be emphasized by scratching or adjusting of the crotch.

The dominant greeting

When people first meet and greet, their first interaction sets the pattern for the future relationship. When a person is dominant here, then they will most likely continue to be dominant.

The handshake

A classic dominant handshake is with the palm down, symbolically being on top. Another form of dominant handshake is to use strength to squeeze the other person. Holding the other person's hand for longer than normal also shows that you are in control.

Prolonged, unblinking eye contact acts like overplaying the handshake -- it says 'I am powerful, I can break the rules.' The dominant person may alternatively prevent eye contact, saying 'You are beneath me and I do not want even to look at you.'

Speaking

The person who speaks first often gets to control the conversation, either by talking for longer or by managing the questions.

Responding to dominance

If others display dominant body language you have a range of options.

The simplest response is simply not to submit, which is what they probably want. Continue to appear friendly and ignore their subtle signals.

Another response is to fight dominance with dominance, for example:

• Out-stare them (a trick here is to look at the bridge of their nose, not

their eyes).

• Touch them, either before they touch you or immediately when they

touch you.

• When they do a power handshake, grab their elbow and step to the

side.

• When they butt in to your speech, speed up, talk more loudly and say

'let me finish!'

Another approach is to name the game. Ask them why they are using dominant body language. A good way to do this is in a curious, unafraid way.

Emotional body language

With careful observation, emotions may be detected from non-verbal signs. Remember that these are indicators and not certain guarantees. Contextual clues may also be used, in particular what is being said to the person or what else is happening around then.

Anger

Anger occurs when achievement of goals are frustrated.

• Neck and/or face is red or flushed.

• Baring of teeth and snarling.

• Clenched fists.

• Leaning forward and invasion of body space.

• Other aggressive body language.

• Use of power body language.

Fear, anxiety and nervousness

Fear occurs when basic needs are threatened. There are many levels of fear, from mild anxiety to blind terror. The many bodily changes caused by fear make it easy to detect.

• A 'cold sweat'.

• Pale face.

• Dry mouth, which may be indicated by licking lips, drinking water,

• Damp eyes.

• Trembling lip.

• Varying speech tone.

• Speech errors.

• Voice tremors.

• Visible high pulse (noticeable on the neck or movement of crossed leg.

• Sweating.

• Tension in muscles: clenched hands or arms, elbows drawn in to the

side, jerky movements, legs wrapped around things.

• Gasping and holding breath.

• Fidgeting.

• Defensive body language , including crossed arms and legs and

generally drawing in of limbs.

• Ready body language (for fight-or-flight)

• Other symptoms of stress

Sadness

Sadness is the opposite of happiness and indicates a depressive state.

• Drooping of the body.

• Trembling lip.

• Flat speech tone.

• Tears.

Embarrassment

Embarrassment may be caused by guilt or transgression of values.

• Neck and/ or face is red or flushed.

• Looking down or away from others. Not looking them in the eye.

• Grimacing, false smile, changing the topic or otherwise trying to cover

up the embarrassment.

Surprise

Surprise occurs when things occur that were not expected.

• Raised eyebrows.

• Widening of eyes.

• Open mouth.

• Sudden backward movement.

Happiness

Happiness occurs when goals and needs are met.

• General relaxation of muscles.

• Smiling (including eyes).

• Open body language

Evaluating body language

Language of evaluation | Reasons for evaluation | See also

Language of evaluation

Hand movements

The classic signal of evaluation is the steepled hands which are clasped together, either looking like they are praying, with both hands pressed together, or with linked fingers and with index fingers only pointing upwards. The fingers pointing upwards may touch the lips.

Another common evaluative movement is stroking, often of the chin but possibly other parts of the face.

Other actions

Other evaluative signals include pursing lips, stroking the side of the nose and (if worn) peering over the top of spectacles ('To look more carefully at you').

Relaxed intensity

The body may well be relaxed and open. The person seems to be unafraid or even unaware of danger. However there is also a level of concentration, perhaps with pursed lips and an intense gaze. The chin may be resting in one or both palms.

Reasons for evaluation

There can be several reasons for a ready body language.

Deciding

A person who is evaluating may be making an important decision. If they are buying from you, they may be close to the point of closure.

Judging

In their decision-making, they may be judging. Perhaps this is you, something you are saying or something else. Watch how they change with what you say and try to figure this one out.

Thinking

Sometimes the evaluation is only on an internal point. When they are deep inside their own world, they may be mentally trying out ideas to see if they will work. If you have suggested something, they may be trying to fit your idea into their own model of the world.

Greeting body language

Handshake | Salute | Bowing | Waving | Hugging | Kissing | Facial signals | Words | Other | See also

There are many possible components of greeting as the styles vary significantly across social groups and cultures.

Greeting is a ritual that helps break the ice and paves the way for appropriate other interaction. Greetings can include signals that may even be secret, for example saying 'we're in the same club'.

Formality is often an important factor, and when you move from a formal greeting to an informal greeting is an important factor in development of a friendship. Too early and it is an insult. Too late and it you may be considered arrogant or distant.

Handshake

Variables

Handshake variables include:

• Strength (weak - strong)

• Temperature (cold - hot)

• Moisture (damp - dry)

• Fullness of grip (full - partial)

• Duration (brief - long)

• Speed (slow - fast)

• Complexity (shake - dance)

• Texture (rough - smooth)

• Eye contact (prolonged - intermittent - none)

Styles

A firm grip shows confidence, whilst a limp grip may indicate timidity, particularly in men (women may be expected to be more gentile). A firm grip by men also indicates they are more sensation-seeking.

Palm down indicates dominance and a feeling of superiority ('I am on top'). Palm sideways indicate equality. Palm up indicates submission.

A long handshake can indicate pleasure and can signal dominance, particularly if one person tries to pull away and the dominant person does not let them.

Dominance may also be shown by using the other hand to grip the person, such as at the wrist, elbow, arm or shoulder. This may also be done by gripping the shaken hand with both of your hands. This may also indicate affection or pleasure (which allows for an ambiguous signal).

A variant of the dominant handshake which is used by politicians who are being

photographed and hence shake hands side-by-side is to stand on the left hand side of the other person. This means your hand will be on the outside and it will look like you are the dominant party to those viewing the photograph.

Responses to the dominant handshake can include counter-touching (use your other hand to hold their hand, wrist, elbow, arm or shoulder), hugging (pull them in), thrusting (push them away by pushing your hand towards them) and stepping the side. Hand-touching is also used, for example the 'high five', where open palms are touched high in the air, or where closed fists are tapped. Where the other person is not gripped, the origins may be in potentially aggressive situations where holding of another could be construed as a threatening act.

Salute

Variables

Salute variables include:

• Shape of hand (straight - curved)

• Speed (fast - slower)

• Head-touch (forehead - none)

The salute is a formal greeting where the open hand is brought up to the forehead. It is often used in the military in a strictly prescribed manner and situation.

There are several possible origins of this, including:

• Shading the eyes from the brilliance of a superior person.

• An abbreviation of raising one's hat or tugging the forelock (in the

absence of a hat).

• Raising helmet visor to show the face (to allow recognition and dispel

fears of enmity).

• Raising the hand to show it does not contain a weapon.

Bowing

Variables

Bowing variables include:

• Lowering (slight - very low)

• Pivot (head - waist)

• Duration (short - long)

• Gender style (bow - curtsey)

Style

Bowing is another formal greeting and can be as extreme as a full 90 degree bend from the waist to even complete prostration on the floor. This averts the eyes ('I dare not look at your majesty') and exposes the head ('You can kill me if you wish').

Bowing amongst peers is commonly used in a severely contracted form as a slight nod of the head. Even in the shortened form, the lower and longer the bow, the greater the respect that is demonstrated.

If eye contact is maintained during a bow, it can signify either mistrust or liking. Looking down as you bow indicates submission, although this also can just be a formal action.

The female variant on the bow is the curtsey, which again can be a full sinking to the floor or a slight bob. Similarly to bowing, this puts the person lower than the other person and into a position of greater vulnerability.

Bowing is different in different cultures. In countries such as Japan it is clearly defined and an important part of greetings. In other countries it is less important or maybe seen as obsequious.

Waving

Variables

Variables for waving include:

• Open palm (flat - curved)

• Movement angle (big - small)

• Raised (above head - held low)

• Direction (sideways rotation - up-down)

Style

Waves gain attention and a big, overhead wave can attract a person from some distance. This also makes others look at you and is not likely from a timid person.

A stationary palm, held up and facing out is far less obvious and may be flashed for a short period, particularly if the other person is looking at you (all you need is that they see the greeting).

Greeting children is often done with a small up-and-down movement of fingers, holding the rest of the palm still. Between adults, this can be a timid or safe signal from a child position ('I won't harm you - please don't harm me.').

Hugging

Variables

Hugging variables include:

• Hand placement (shoulder, etc.)

• Arms touch (none - wrap)

• Body position (front - side - behind)

• Pressure (light - strong)

• Body touching (none - full)

• Gender (man/woman - man/woman)

Styles

Hugging is a closer and more affectionate form of greeting than shaking hands and perhaps reflects a desire for bonding.

Hugging is generally more common between friends, although its usage does vary across cultures and is common in some places. Gender rules may also apply, for example hugging in America is far more common between women than between men. Harassment laws may also limit touching of the other person in what may be interpreted as an intimate way.

Full-body hugs create contact with breasts and between genitalia and hence may be sexually suggestive or stimulating. This tends to limit their use to romantic greetings, although they are still used in some cultures, including between men.

Light shoulder-only hugs are more common as social greetings, in which people lean forward in order not to break rules about touching breasts or genitalia.

Side-on, one-handed hugs are safer and can be a friendly touch. Even so, this still can be a deliberate romantic advance or act of domination (even if not, it may be perceived as such).

Longer, fuller hugs often signal greater affection and may happen between people who have not seen one another for some time.

Hugging someone from behind can be surprising and even threatening, and is usually only done by friends who trust one another implicitly.

Kissing

Variables

Contact during kissing can be: