Leader Member Exchange

Drawing upon the existing literature, this study investigated the relationship between collectivism and religious affiliation with the four Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) dimensions of Contribution, Loyalty, Affect, and Professional Respect. In this study of 300 adults, a significant positive relationship was found between the Multidimensional Measure of Leader-Member Exchange with collectivism and religious affiliation. With regard to the dimension of Contribution, collectivism and religious affiliation were both found to be strong predictors. With respect to Loyalty; collectivism and age helped to increase ratings of the supervisor and perceptions of leadership. Affect only had one significant predictor, collectivism. The LMX dimension of Professional Respect was found to have four significant predictors, including collectivism, religious affiliation, age, and years as a manager. Further regression analysis indicated that the diversity dimension, collectivism, was the driving factor of the relationship. This outcome indicated that collectivism was a strong predictor of how positively participants rated their attitudes toward their immediate supervisor and perceptions of leadership. The results of this study indicate that a relationship does exist between collectivism and religious affiliation with the Multidimensional Measure of Leader-Member Exchange, particularly with regard to the LMX dimensions of Contribution and Professional Respect. Furthermore, it strengthens the argument that organizations must be prepared to re-evaluate their policies with regard to diversity in the organization, particularly with respect to collectivism.

The results of this study indicated that LMX makes significantly positive contributions to knowledge sharing and employee creativity, respectively. These results are in line with Farzaneh Hassanzadeh (2014), who reported LMX to be positively and significantly related to knowledge sharing and creative work environment in insurance companies; and concluded that leaders in the organization are in positions to help overcome the fare knowledge sharing among employees by enforcing a context of cooperation and structure of organization. So that leaders will be effective in a variety of cross-cultural environments and can be assigned to hotel assignments of varying complexity. The present study also revealed that leaders contribute to knowledge sharing and positive creativity of their subordinates in hotel industries, which are highly valuable for organizations and crucial for individual career development. Moreover, the research findings also demonstrated that the direct relationship between knowledge sharing and employee creativity was found in this study. The findings of this study conclude that greater use of knowledge sharing would push the employees more committed to create new idea for developing the product or service of the hotel industry, Cambodian context. This finding goes along with the prior studies, such as Nonaka, Von-Krogh, and Voelpel (2006) which concluded that the critical function of knowledge sharing is that of maintaining an inter-organizational mechanism for employees‟ on-going innovation. The result also illustrated that knowledge sharing only partially mediates the relationship between leader-member exchange and employee creativity. This finding is consistent with the previous studies, such as Farzaneh Hassanzadeh (2014) which found that knowledge sharing was partially mediated between LMX and creative work involvement. In conception, the high quality of LMX (supervisor-employee relationships) promotes creativity of employees and perceived expectation of leader impact on individual‟s creative involvement at work place. Finally, organizational commitment is positively and significantly moderated the relationship between knowledge sharing and employee creativity was found in this study. The result shown in Figure 3 indicated that employees are more creative with high levels of organizational commitment and knowledge sharing and in contrast, employees are less creative when low levels of organizational commitment and knowledge sharing. That is, hotel organization can enhance employee‟s commitment to share their knowledge for creating involvement at work place.

to understand how these influential processes operate in transformational leadership (e.g. Bass, 1998, Conger, Kanungo &Menon, 2000; Kark & Shamir, 2002; Keskes, 2014a). As organizational life can lead to the development of a specific relationship between the leader and each of the followers, social exchange theory (Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005) can be a useful theoretical lens to examine the relationship between transformational leadership and organizational commitment. In particular, leader-member exchange (LMX) (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995, Liden & Maslyn, 1998) can be a mediator between leadership style and development of commitment to the organization (Wang, Law, Hackett, Wang & Chen, 2005, Shusha, 2013, Jyoti & Bhau, 2015). Therefore, the aim of this research is to develop a model of relationship between dimensions of transformational leadership and organizational commitment, in which the nature of the exchange between leaders and organizational members acts as a mediating variable.

DOI: 10.4236/tel.2018.811150 2321 Theoretical Economics Letters Byrne, Z. [35] tested the proposition that interactional and procedural fairness mitigates the negative effects of perceived organizational politics on organiza- tional citizenship behavior, turnover intentions and in-role job performance. Results of the study revealed that perceived high levels of procedural justice sig- nificantly moderate the relationship between covert political behavior (go along to get ahead) and turnover intentions but not with general political behavior (overt) and turnover intentions. However, the relationship between covert beha- vior and interactional justice was in opposite direction. Neither the perceptions of interactional nor the perceptions of procedural justice moderated the percep- tions of two types of organizational politics on OBC beneficial to supervisors and supervisors rated job performance. Study finally depicted that both interac- tional and procedural justice had moderating effects on covert but not on overt political behavior. Furthermore, results of the present study depicted that the quality of leader-member exchange has positive effect on the employee’s percep- tion regarding organizational justice [17] [30] [31] [32] [59]. On the contrary, Andrews, M. C. & Kacmar, K. M. [38] found that there is no relationship be- tween leader-member exchange and the perceptions of distributive justice. Nev- ertheless, Wayne, S. J. et al. [83] demonstrated a significant positive relationship between the quality of relationship between employee-leader and the perceptions of distributive justice among employees.

In looking at leader effectiveness and their subordinates’ performance, the quality of their relationship has also been considered. Scholars (Dulebohn, Bommer, Liden, Brour, & Ferris, 2012; Eisenberger et al., 2014) who look at the quality of the relationship between leaders and their subordinates have defined such relationship as the leader-member exchange (LMX). Past studies as stated above have described the exchange relationship between the leaders and their subordinates from time to time (Dansereau, Graen, & Haga, 1975). The exchange relationship that exists between the superiors and their subordinates can occur in various forms, for example in work related forms like suggestions and workflows or non-work related forms like friendship (Liden & Maslyn, 1998). A good quality relationship exchange is obvious when a leader expresses concerns for each of his/ her subordinates’ well-being and happiness and that same leader also shows his/her intentions to promote positive interactions with the subordinates. This display of concern from the leader will endorse various positive outcomes from their subordinates such as an increase in the overall organisational citizenship behaviour (OCB) (Harris, Li, & Kirkman, 2014), organisational commitment (Chen, Yu, & Son, 2014) and job satisfaction (DeRue, Nahrgang, Wellman, & Humphrey, 2011; Liu, Lin, & Hu, 2013; Venkataramani, Graen, & Schleicher, 2010; Zhou, Wang, Chen, & Shi, 2012).

processes: implications for the management of diversity. In: GRAEN, G. B. Dealing with diversity. Greenwich: Information Age, 2003. DOURADO, D.P.; NEVES, J. A. Perfil e mo- tivações da mão-de-obra absorvida pelas orga- nizações do jogo de bicho do Recife e da Região Metropolitana. In: ENCONTRO NACIONAL DOS PROGRAMAS DE PÓS-GRADUAÇÃO EM ADMINISTRAÇÃO, 24., 2000. Anais... Rio de Janeiro: ANPAD, 2000. 1 CD-ROM. FONSECA, C.; MEDEIROS, M.L.; CLETO, M.G. A estrutura de filiais de transnacionais para receber gerentes expatriados: estudo com- parativo de casos In: ENCONTRO NACIONAL DOS PROGRAMAS DE PÓS-GRADUAÇÃO EM ADMINISTRAÇÃO, 24., 2000. Anais... Rio de Janeiro: ANPAD, 2000. 1 CD-ROM. GRAEN, G.B.; UHL-BIEN, M.. Relationship- based approach to leadership: development of leader-member exchange (LMX) theory of leadership over 25 years: applying a multi-level multi-domain perspective. In: DANSEREAU, F.; YAMMARINO, F.J. Leadership: the multiple-level approaches. Stamford: Jai Press, 1998. p. 103-33. GREEN, W.H.; GREEN, R.H. Liderança e a sabedoria do ensinar. Nice Journal, São Paulo, v. 4, n. 1, 2002. Disponível em: <www.unisa. br/cbel/artigos04/04_williamgreen_pt.pdf>. Acesso em: 08 jun. 2006.

Abstract: Individual feelings of energy (IFE), creative work involvement (CWI) and leader- member exchange (LMX) are understudied areas in Pakistan. The purposes of this study are: a) to analyze the mediating role of LMX on the relationship between IFE and CWI; and b) to evaluate whether the LMX relationship mediates differently for non-managerial staff, supervisors, middle and senior managers. A sample of 300 responses is drawn from the manufacturing com- panies of Karachi using a questionnaire administered to them. Exploratory factor analysis is used to extract three orthogonal constructs (namely, IFE, CWI, and LMX) and their convergent and discriminant validity are established through confirmatory factor analysis. Both composite and MaxR(H) statistics are estimated to ensure the reliability of the three constructs. The results show that LMX partially mediates the positive relationship between IFE and CWI. In addition, the re- sults of the multi-group mediation analysis for different levels of responsibility show that LMX partially mediates in case of middle and senior management only. However, it does not mediate for non-managerial staff and supervisors. The most important theoretical contribution of the study in the existing knowledge of leadership-creativity relationship is that LMX partially mediates the relationship between IFE and CWI. Besides, this is one of the first reports in the context of the manufacturing companies of Pakistan.

Leadership in complex organizations is characterized by the parallel development of two different perspectives (Howell and Hall-Merenda, 1999). One viewpoint is leader-focused, which concentrates on the traits and behaviors of leaders, and these behaviors are directly linked to individual, group or organizational outcomes. This viewpoint is exemplified by theories of transformational leadership (e.g., Bass, 1985; Bass and Avolio, 1990). The second perspective focuses on the explicit one-to-one relationships that develop between a leader and a follower. This stream of research proposes a link between follower’s performance and the quality and level of mutual trust, respect, and influence within individual leader-follower relationships (Howell and Hall-Merenda 1999). This approach is best exemplified by leader-member-exchange (LMX) theory (Graen and Scandura, 1987; Graen and Uhl-Bien, 1995). A comprehensive literature review shows that few studies have integrated the two perspectives.

This thesis used a model of both supervisors‟ and subordinates‟ perspectives of leader member exchange (LMX) and the impact of guanxi on those relationships. The thesis replicated some established relationships, and then added to the literature by providing an elaboration of how guanxi is related to LMX through its different dimensions. A multi-dimensional approach to LMX and a differential behaviours approach to guanxi were used to test hypotheses.

represent poor judgment on the part of the leader, signifying a lack of concern for employee and customer well- being (Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1991). Over time, as supervisors become cynical, subordinates should begin perceiving that investments of resources are likely to be followed by a lack of resource gain and that their supervisor lacks concern for them (also essential to the leader-member exchange relationship), resulting in diminished perceptions of their LMX relationship. Similarly, supervisors experiencing depersonalization should begin to conserve their own resources in an effort to reduce furthering their own burnout and withdraw from investing in the same way with their subordinates, thus resulting in lower quality LMX relationships. Supporting this argument, both field and experimental studies have found that people begin to reduce their responsiveness and availability toward others as they start to feel burned out (Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Muraven, & Tice, 1998; Repetti, 1989). Therefore, drawing on COR and LMX theory, it is hypothesized:

This study aims to determine: firstly the influence of narcissistic leadership on job satisfaction, secondly the influence of narcissistic leader- ship on member exchange, thirdly the influence of leader member exchange on job satisfaction, and fourthly the effect of narcissistic lead- ership on job satisfaction that is mediated by leader member exchange. The population in this study were employees of PT Asuransi Jasa Indonesia (Persero) with a sample of 80 respondents taken by random sampling technique. The research method used in this study is path analysis. The results obtained: (1) Narcissistic leadership influences employee job satisfaction. (2) Narcissistic leadership influences LMX. (3) LMX affects employee job satisfaction. (4) Narcissistic leadership has a direct influence on employee job satisfaction through LMX.

Recently, scholars started paying more attention to the dynamic formation of work relationships and trust between leaders and followers rather than the innate traits of leaders. There are numerous variables that can influence leadership effectiveness and performance (Alabi & Alabi, 2014). However, few of these attributes have been linked to the effective social exchanges that take place between leaders and followers. The current study argues that emotional intelligence is not always universally researched or acknowledged as a key attribute used by leaders to understand and gauge followers’ emotions. In this study, it is argued that emotional intelligence is a key ingredient in the formation of high-quality leader member exchange (LMX) relationships.

considerable amount of grey literature highlight the importance of a structured review to consolidate the evidence indicating that attachment style plays an important role in LMX leader- follower relationship. To date, although some work has been done on the role of attachment, LMX and leadership effectiveness, there is no comprehensive systematic review of this relationship. Nine studies (e.g. four journal articles, four theses and one report) were included from across seven cultures; with 2,862 participants that were assessed for their attachment style and a range of outcomes, such as the quality of leader member exchange, job satisfaction, trust, trustworthiness and turnover intentions (Coombe, 2010; Frazier et al., 2015; Grosvenor & Boies, 2005; Jackson, 2008; Kafetsios et al., 2014; Lavy, 2014; Pang Tze Lin, 2009; Richards, 2009; Richards & Hackett, 2012). Cross-sectional survey design was applied to all studies, using quantitative methods (Coombe, 2010; Frazier et al., 2015; Grosvenor & Boies, 2005; Jackson, 2008; Kafetsios et al., 2014; Lavy, 2014; Pang Tze Lin, 2009; Richards, 2009; Richards & Hackett, 2012). To best address the research questions, the studies were grouped according to the attachment style of the leader.

Numerous studies in various occupations and countries show that job demands are related to strain and job resources to work engagement (for a meta-analysis, see Crawford, LePine & Rich, 2010). A study among teachers in African countries revealed that job resources such as autonomy and feedback were positively related to work engagement (Fouché, Rothmann & van der Vyver, 2017) even though teachers in African countries are facing poor job conditions and high job demands (Jackson, Rothmann & Van de Vijver, 2006; Willemse & Deacon, 2015). Longitudinal research also supports the positive effect of job resources on work engagement. A study among Finnish healthcare personnel revealed that higher levels of job control in 2003 were associated with higher levels of vigour, dedication, and absorption in 2005 (Mauno, Kinnunnen & Ruokolainen, 2007), especially job resources such as autonomy and feedback have been associated with work engagement. These job resources correlated more strongly with work engagement than did job demands such as physical demands and job complexity (for a meta-analysis, see Christian et al., 2011). For example, vigour and dedication among managers working for a platinum mine in Africa was predicted by organisational support, and not workload (Rothmann & Joubert, 2007). Leader–member exchange

variety of organizational, individual and contextual factors have been studied as important determinants of IWB (e.g. Mumford et al. 2002; Janssen et al., 2004; Mumford and Licuanan 2004; Sanders et al., 2010; Taştan, 2013). Pioneering the IWB works, Hurt et al. (1977) examined generalized willingness to change as a personality-based aspect of individual innovation at work. A number of authors have examined how individual differences affect IWB and particularly focused on “personal characteristics” -propensity to innovate, intrinsic interest, mastery orientation- (Janssen and van Yperen 2004; Bunce and West 1995; Yuan and Woodman 2010), “cognitive features of individuals” - problem-solving style, problem ownership- (Scott and Bruce 1994; Dorenbosch et al., 2005), and “self-efficacy” (Farr and Ford, 1990; Bandura, 1997). As further, many researchers have studied on organizational and contextual factors and suggested supervisory behavior as an important driving force for IWB (Scott and Bruce 1994; Tierney et al., 1999; Mumford et al., 2002). There are particular works which have studied the effects of transformational leadership and leader-member exchange on IWB (e.g., Scott and Bruce 1994; Pieterse et al., 2010; Yuan and Woodman 2010; Xerri, 2013). Organizational culture (Scott and Bruce 1994), organizational climate (Scott and Bruce 1994; Taştan, 2013), and support for innovation (Axtell et al., 2000) have been also revealed as other organizational factors that were related to IWB. It was found that LMX had positive relationship with IWB (Li et al., 2012; Agarwal et al., 2012; Munoz-Doyague and Nieto, 2012; Xerri, 2013). In particular, we devoted attention to the relation of LMX with IWB noticing the role of perception of trust in leaders/managers.

The theory of leader-member exchange (LMX) perceives leadership as a process that focuses on the collaboration between leaders and subordinates. LMX is divided into four categories, namely loyalty, affect, professional respect and contribution (Liden & Maslyn, 1998). Thereafter, (Bhal & Ansari, 1996) created a new LMX scale known as LMX-Affect and LMX-Contribution. The forte of LMX is that it has the ability to forecast results within organisational boundaries, such as performance and attitudes (Gerstner & Day, 1997), organisational commitment (Linden et al., 2000), ratings of the performance (Liden & Maslyn, 1998) and satisfaction (Duchon et al., 1986). A poor LMX was similarly considered as an undesirable attribute in an employment relationship and was observed to explain employees’ turnover (Griffeth & Hom, 2001). A number of studies found that the relationship quality between leaders and followers enable employees to participate in organisational goals (Schyns et al., 2005; Yukl & Fu, 1999), to perform well (Costigan et al., 2006), allowing them to be more committed to the organisational cause (Lo et al., 2010; Torka et al., 2010), and indicates justice perceptions of the employees (Piccolo et al., 2008). LMX has the capabilities to affect the in-role and extra-role of subordinates’ performance that together comprise organisational performance. As mentioned in the preceding section, a leader may develop either high-quality or low- quality social exchanges. This translates so that in high- quality LMX, leaders are inclined to offer strong support to the favoured employees and in return, the employees are motivated to perform their duties beyond stipulated job requirements and are prepared to undertake more assignments. In low-quality LMX, the opposite rings true. The high-quality LMX relationship has positive significances to the performance of the organisation (Kim, 2013) whereas a low-quality LMX would be the opposite.

Werknemers worden bloot gesteld aan allerlei invloeden binnen een organisatie, de omgang met directe leidinggevenden is er hier één van (Purcell & Hutchinson, 2007). De manier waarop leidinggevenden met de werknemers omgaan heeft invloed op het gedrag van de werknemers (Purcell & Hutchinson, 2007). Een veel beschreven manier van omgang tussen leidinggevende en werknemer is Leader-Member Exchange (LMX). LMX gaat uit van het opbouwen van een relatie tussen werknemer en leidinggevende (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995). LMX is gebaseerd op de ‘social exchange theory’ die ervan uitgaat dat wanneer een persoon iemand een dienst doet, er een verwachting ontstaat voor een wederdienst (Wayne et al., 1997).

The LMX (Leader Member Exchange) theory has proven to be one of the most compelling theories for the understanding of the effects of leadership on organizational behavior. This theory argues that the quality of the relationship between the coordinator and collaborator plays an important role in the responses of the staff within the work environment. Furthermore, a positive LMX is linked to organizational commitment, the job satisfaction, and intentions to remain in the organization. The objective is to identify if and how a good relationship between the coordinator and collaborator, influence the organizational support and commitment. Were involved 44 professionals in the rehabilitation of the Department of Rehabilitation of a hospital near Verona (Italy). Analysis of the data shows a positive and significant correlation between LMX and organizational support and positive between LMX and organizational commitment. The findings from this study have demonstrated the critical importance that the report assumes that the Coordinator develops with collaborators in the understanding of the effects of leadership on organizational behavior. For future research, it would be interesting to apply the consultation of the theory of LMX in broader populations and belonging to all the health professions.

In this study, four research constructs and their first-order CFA model were adopted to examine each individual research construct, and the results of this procedure indicated that standardized loading for all items exceeded 0.60 and that t- values were higher than 1.96 (p < 0.001). The model fitness index of each individual research construct was acceptable: χ 2 /df < 2; GFI) > 0.90; AGFI > 0.90; RMR < 0.05, and p-value > 0.05 (see Table 2). The second order models, then, was conducted to analyze the fitness of research constructs which contained multiple factors (i.e., commitment-based HRM practices, leader-member exchange, knowledge sharing, and employee creativity) as shown in Table 3. The results of the second-order model were satisfied the threshold as suggested by Hair, Black, Babin, and Anderson (2010), Koufteros et al. (2009): l χ 2 /df) < 2; GFI > 0.90; AGFI > 0.90; RMR < 0.05 (see Table 2). These results demonstrated that our research model held good fit to the data, with adequate convergent validity and construct reliability (Hair et al., 2010). The descriptive statistics, including the means, standard deviations, and correlations among the research variables are reported in Table 4. Convergent validity was demonstrated, as the average variance extracted (AVE) values for all research constructs was higher than the suggested threshold value of 0.50 (Fornell and Larcker, 1981).

In the structure equation modeling (SEM), Hair et al. (1998) assert that in a given research, the sample size cannot be less than 200. This is due to the fact that when using SEM, if the sample size decreases per variable or parameter, there is the likelihood that it will not run and will give an error. For the purpose of conducting this study, academic staffs holding a degree of master and Ph.D. have been selected from 18 Iraqi technical colleges and institutes. Therefore, the population of this study is the total number of academic staff in 18 colleges and institutes (N=1,781) (Iraqi Foundation of Technical Education, 2014). Through the use of the ratio 10:1 as suggested by Kline (2011), the sample size (n = 750) have been chosen to get a sample large enough to achieve the statistical significance and a good model fit in the structural equation modeling (SEM). Therefore, in this study, a total of 750 academic employees have been invited to take part. Leader-member exchange (LMX) is operationalized as quality of the working relationship between leaders and faculty members in higher education (Alabi, 2012). The leader-member exchange multidimensional (LMX-MDM) 12-item was proposed by Liden and Maslyn (1998) to evaluate the quality of LMX at work. The 12 items were distributed as three items under each dimension (Affect, loyalty, contributions and professional respect) each of the four categories of the LMX-MDM was tested for reliability from the Cronbach alpha by Liden and Maslyn (1998). In the context of higher education, Lo et al. (2009) and Alabi (2012) adopted the measurement of Liden and Maslyn (1998) 12-item LMX scale to assess the quality of relationship between leaders and faculty members. In the current study responses were rated on a 5-point type Likert scale ranging from one (strongly disagree) to five (strongly agree). Since this study conducted in Iraqi technical colleges and institutes which are under higher education, some items modified according to the context of this study.