approaches to retrofit
Objective 1: Review the academic literature and develop a broad understanding of topics relating to: climate change, retrofitting, home improvement, domestic
3.6 Engineering driven design processes
3.6.2 Design process stages
Agyapong‐Kodua et al (2013) review literature relating to stages of the product design process and highlight the common design stages below in Figure 10:
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Figure 10: Common stages of the design process (Agyapong-Kodua et al, 2013)
This is a simplified view of the process, which demonstrates a ‘logical’ sequence featuring the common stages found in most design processes. This process is linear and unlike the UCD process, does not include any iteration. Agyapong‐Kodua et al observe that this common sequential approach limits the level of interaction between designers and other relevant knowledge holders, thereby limiting the ability to work across disciplines or with UCD practitioners.
Pahl & Beitz (1984) present a model with similar elements to that described by Agyapong‐Kodua et al (2013), but split the design process into four main stages:
1. Clarification 2. Conceptual Design 3. Embodiment Design 4. Detail Design
These four stages have been highlighted in Figure 11 below to show the order of progression throughout the design process.
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Task
Clarify the task
Elaborate the specification
Specification
Identify essential problems Establish function structures Search for solution principles
Combine and firm up into concept variants Evaluate against technical and economic criteria
Concept
Develop preliminary layouts and form designs Select best preliminary layouts
Refine and evaluate against technical and economic criteria
Preliminary layout
Optimise and complete form designs Check for errors and cost effectiveness
Prepare the preliminary parts list and production documents
Definitive layout
Finalise details
Complete detail drawings and production documents Check all documents
Documentation
Solution
Upgrade and improve
Information: adapt the specification Clarification of the taskConceptual designEmbodiment designDetail design Optimisation of the layout and forms Optimisation of the principle
Figure 11: Steps of the Design Process (Pahl & Beitz, 1984)
As already discussed, research reported in this thesis was conducted in collaboration with a large research project and therefore, there were specific constraints and concepts already in place for the technologies discussed. As a result, at the time this research was conducted, the technologies were in the embodiment stage of the design process and therefore this became the logical focus for this research. This is the stage where the initial concept of a product is further developed according to technical and economic criteria (Pahl & Beitz, 1984).
Embodiment is described in more detail in Section 3.6.3.
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French’s model of the design process (1999) is classified in similar stages to that of Pahl & Beitz (1984). However, this model highlights the need for not only an ‘initial statement of need’ but also a stage to analyse the problem, which French describes as ‘a small but important part of the overall process’. He clarifies the three elements of this stage:
1. A statement of the design problem proper
2. Limitation placed upon the solution, e.g. codes of practice, statutory requirements, customer’s standards, date of completion, etc.
3. The criterion of excellence to be worked to.
Whilst this stage refers to ‘customer’s standards’, it does not suggest any identification of customers’ actual needs and wants, nor the gathering of any information external to the process in order to inform the design.
Figure 12 displays French’s model (1999), which includes an iterative feedback loop, encouraging and facilitating developers to return to earlier design stages to make adjustments.
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Figure 12: French's model of the design process (1999)
This model has an initial stage to ‘analyse the problem’, allowing for the formation of the ‘statement of problem’ which includes the identification of limitations to the product. These limitations could include user specifications and thereby provide an opportunity for input from a user practitioner.
Archer’s model (1984, p. 57‐82) of the design process shown in Figure 13 below includes interaction with the world outside of the design process, for example, past experience of the designer, any training, input or consultation with the client and other sources of information. The process indicates these as ‘experience’ and shows how they impact upon the design at an early stage, in the activity of ‘programming’,
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there could be the introduction of user needs etc. This is a prescriptive design process, where design proposals will not be formulated until the ‘Synthesis’ stage, when all the data collection and analysis has been completed.
Figure 13: Archer's model of the design process (1984, p.57-82)
Archer’s model introduces a key element which has not been seen in the other processes discussed; that of external influence and experience. The process also clearly demonstrates the iterative loops from data collection and analysis back to product brief and from analysis, synthesis and development back to data collection.
None of the other models discussed thus far have demonstrated the iterative nature of the process in this way.
Archer (1984, p. 57‐82) summarises the design process by dividing it into 3 phases:
analytical, creative and executive. He describes the design process as a ‘creative sandwich’, where there is always a creative act in the middle of the process, regardless of the size of the other elements.
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Table 5 below illustrates how the other models discussed fit into these phases, allowing for comparison between the stages.
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Table 5: Comparison of three different design process stages
Archer (1984) French (1999) Pahl & Beitz (1984) Analytical Programming Analysis of problem Specification
Data collection Statement of problem Creative
Analysis Conceptual design Concept
Synthesis Embodiment Preliminary layout
Development Detailing Definitive layout
Executive Communication Workings drawings Documentation
Zhang et al (2010) more recently proposed an innovative design process for energy saving products. It was designed in recognition of the fact that ‘it is key for companies to win the market by developing new products that satisfy user needs while minimizing environmental impacts and energy consumption.’ The model has three stages that correspond to the four stages (clarification, conceptual design, embodiment design, detail design) within Pahl & Beitz’s (1984) model: Demands Analysis, Concept Design and Detail Design. The process is illustrated in Figure 14.
Figure 14: Process of energy saving innovative product design (Zhang et al 2010)
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The model does refer to the customer needs for the new product. However, it makes no suggestions as to how this information is obtained nor the sources of such information, and there is also no mention of an iterative process whereby the design can be evaluated against the original stated customer needs. Whilst the process is organised into sections similar to Pahl & Beitz’s model (1984), (analysis, concept design and detail design) the model bears very little resemblance to the former and the non‐linear layout makes it challenging to compare them.
From the design processes reviewed, Pahl & Beitz’s model of design offers the most useful reference for this research. The model is well cited and is referred to by Howard et al (2008) as ‘a well referenced and simple classification system’, whilst Cross (2008, p.36) describes it as ‘a reasonably comprehensive model that still retains some clarity’ (as opposed to some of the more complicated models). The model is related specifically to engineering design and the products being developed within the CALEBRE project are within this research area. It is therefore the model that will be discussed in more detail and referred to within the rest of this thesis.