approaches to retrofit
Objective 1: Review the academic literature and develop a broad understanding of topics relating to: climate change, retrofitting, home improvement, domestic
3.6 Engineering driven design processes
3.6.4 User needs in design
This thesis has already identified the importance of identifying the needs of users and factoring them into the product design. Cross (2008, p.59) reinforces this increasing need, ‘Although many producer companies devote major resources to researching the market for their products, many products still appear on the market that seem not to have been designed with their user in mind. As modern products become more and more complex, with more and more functions and features available through their microprocessor components, many of them have become increasingly confusing to their users. At the same time, the availability of greater diversity of products has led to greater consumer choice, and therefore the greater importance of consumer preferences. Consequently, a concern has grown to ensure that the design of products and systems becomes more user‐centred.’ As described earlier in the chapter, some design processes include steps to elicit or translate customer needs. One method of representing customer needs is the ‘House of Quality’ or Quality Function Deployment (QFD) (Hauser & Clausing, 1988). Otto and Wood (2001, p. 283‐297) suggest that ‘When developing the engineering requirements for a product development project, the design team must collect enough information from the customers and other sources to produce a specific set of needs.’ QFD was developed in the late 1960s in Japan as a way of defining the customers’ wants in their own voice, translating them into requirements and providing targets for meeting these requirements. It is described as the ‘dominating approach’ which guarantees that user requirements guide the development process (Kaulio, 1998). The customer needs are generally reproduced in their own words, although this can lead to questionable interpretation (Hauser & Clausing, 1988). It is used within ‘Design for Quality’ design processes and can ensure that requirements are accurately translated into technical requirements through each stage of the product development process (Kuo, Huang & Zhang, 2001).
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Figure 16 depicts a standard ‘House of Quality’ diagram. The customer needs are entered on the left hand vertical column (‘What’), whilst the horizontal column above and to the right is where the developer denotes how these needs can be met (‘How’).
Figure 16: House of Quality (Hauser&Clausing, 1988)
The House of Quality has been used by many commercial companies and Hauser and Clausing (1988) describe its basis as ‘the belief that products should be designed to reflect customers’ desires and tastes, so marketing people, design engineers, and manufacturing staff must work closely together from the time a product is first conceived.’
Methods such as the House of Quality are used in order to elicit and represent customer requirements. Although Otto and Wood (2001, p.283‐297) highlight the need for customer information, they point out that there will be other criteria which are not within the range of the customer’s knowledge or perception. They therefore deem it necessary to supplement the consumers’ requirements with engineering requirements. They divide engineering requirements into functional requirements or constraints, where functional requirements are ‘statements of the specific performance of a design’ and are used in generic terms, whilst constraints are external factors that are not directly linked to the functions of the system e.g.
cost, weight etc. They also suggest the use of a larger ‘customer’ base with the
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inclusion of other stakeholders to supplement consumer requirements. However, they state that ‘This approach tends to obscure and diminish the point‐of‐view of the person who will be buying the product.’ The House of Quality method is a useful tool when customers have an awareness of what they want or need. However, for new innovative technologies, such as those that save energy, customers may not be aware of how the technology could affect their lives and habits and therefore they struggle to vocalise their needs or desires. Therefore, a more in depth understanding of the customers and the context into which the technology would be placed is needed.
As mentioned previously, even when ‘user needs’ are represented within the design process, they may not be developed from user research, but on assumptions (Cushman & Rosenberg, 1991, p.3‐4) such as the design fallacies highlighted by Pheasant(1996), three of which are:
Then design is satisfactory for me, it will therefore be satisfactory for everybody else
The variability of human beings is so great that they cannot possibly be catered for in any design, but since people are wonderfully adaptable it does not matter anyway
Ergonomics is an excellent idea, I always design things with ergonomics in mind, but I do it intuitively and rely on my common sense so I do not need tables of data or empirical studies.
Pheasant suggests that although the fallacies may not be explicitly expressed by an individual, their actions would allude to this way of thinking.
In addition to using particular methods within the design process to consider customers’ needs, there have also been attempts to merge the engineering design process with UCD. As an example of this, Mayhew (1999) has developed the Usability Engineering Lifecycle, which is shown in Figure 17.
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Figure 17: Usability Engineering Lifecycle (Mayhew, 1999)
The Usability Engineering Lifecycle begins by identifying usability goals, allowing for evaluation against these goals both during the process and after installation. This process has demonstrated the capability of merging a user centred design process with a standard design process. The lifecycle shows many iterative loops where usability goals and user feedback is gained.
As already described, there is a need to include user requirements in the design process and therefore, it is encouraging to find a process model with a user centred priority. Gould & Lewis (1985) identify that iterative design is believed to be too risky, difficult and time consuming by technology developers and this model does not give reason to doubt this.
Based on their analysis of literature, current capabilities and trends within industry, Agyapong‐Kodua et al (2013) state that there is a need for a robust integrated design and manufacturing methodology that ‘supports a simplified but robust means of deriving customer specifications. Based on the derived customer
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specifications, there should be a means of converting customer specifications into product design specification without losing important customer requirements. The specifications should further serve as a benchmark for evaluating design concepts.
After the evaluation, the methodology should possess the ability to recommend optimisation solutions based on specified design intents.’ This statement provides further support for the need for a more user centred approach when designing technology.
3.7 Chapter Conclusions
The chapter began by identifying the need for a sociotechnical approach to carbon reduction in order to address both the behavioural or user issues along with the technical design challenges (Lomas, 2010, Stafford & Lilley, 2012). It discussed how this approach can be conducted through cross‐disciplinary work and highlighted examples of other research being conducted within the domestic retrofit area.
Although this research is focussing on technical measures, the chapter has highlighted the need for behaviour change in order to adopt these technical measures. The need to focus on users has been discussed together with why UCD is an appropriate process to do this. It is important for UCD practitioners to have an understanding of engineering design (Haslegrave, 1994) and therefore this chapter concludes with a consideration of a number of engineering design processes, including how they address user requirements, before identifying the design process proposed by Pahl & Beitz (1984) and in particular, the embodiment phase, as being the most suitable for use in this research.
This chapter completes the literature review of the thesis. The next chapter discusses the theory behind the adopted research approach and the various methods employed.
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