Occulesis is the study of the messages communicated by the eyes, which vary depending on
the duration, direction, and quality of the eye behavior. For example, in every culture there are rather strict, though unstated, rules for the proper duration for eye contact. In much of Eng- land and the United States, for example, the average length of gaze is 2.95 seconds. The average length of mutual gaze (two persons gazing at each other) is 1.18 seconds (Argyle, 1988; Argyle & Ingham, 1972). When the duration of eye contact is shorter than 1.18 seconds, you may think the person is uninterested, shy, or preoccupied. When the appropriate amount of time is exceeded, you may perceive this as showing high interest.
In much of the United States direct eye contact is considered an expression of honesty and forthrightness. But the Japanese often view eye contact as a lack of respect. The Japanese will glance at the other person’s face rarely and then only for very short periods (Axtell, 2007). In many Hispanic cultures, direct eye contact signifies a certain equality and so should be avoided by, say, children when speaking to a person in authority. Try visualizing the potential misun- derstandings that eye communication alone could create when people from Tokyo, San Francisco, and San Juan try to communicate.
The direction of the eye also communicates. Generally, in communicating with another person, you will glance alternatively at the other person’s face, then away, then again at the face, and so on. When these directional rules are broken, different meanings are communicated— abnormally high or low interest, self-consciousness, nervousness over the interaction, and so on. The quality of the gaze—how wide or how narrow your eyes get during interaction— also communicates meaning, especially interest level and such emotions as surprise, fear, and disgust.
eye Contact
You use eye contact to serve several important functions (Knapp & Hall, 2009; Malandro, Barker, & Barker, 1989; Richmond, McCroskey, & Hickson, 2012).n To monitor feedback. For example, when you talk with
others, you look at them and try to understand their reac- tions to what you’re saying. You try to read their feedback, and on this basis you adjust what you say. As you can imagine, successful readings of feedback will help consid- erably in your overall effectiveness.
n To secure attention. When you speak with two or three
other people, you maintain eye contact to secure the at- tention and interest of your listeners. When someone fails to pay you the attention you want, you probably in- crease your eye contact, hoping that this will increase attention.
n To regulate the conversation. Eye contact helps you reg-
ulate, manage, and control the conversation. With eye movements you can inform the other person that she or he should speak. A clear example of this occurs in the college classroom, where the instructor asks a question and then locks eyes with a student. This type of eye contact tells the student to answer the question.
n To signal the nature of the relationship. Eye communi-
cation also can serve as a “tie sign” or signal of the nature of the relationship between two people—for example, to indi- cate positive or negative regard. Depending on the culture, eye contact may communicate your romantic interest in another person, or eye avoidance may indicate respect. Some researchers note that eye contact serves to enable
VIEWPOINTS Listeners gaze at speakers more than speakers gaze at listeners (Knapp & Hall, 2009. The percentage of interaction time spent gazing while listening, for example, ranges from 62 percent to 75 percent; the percentage of time spent gazing while talking, however, ranges from 38 percent to 41 percent. When these percentages are reversed—when a speaker gazes at the listener for longer than “normal” periods or when a listener gazes at the speaker for shorter than “normal” periods—the conversational interaction becomes awkward. Try this out with a friend and see what happens. Even with mutual awareness, you’ll notice the discomfort caused by this seemingly minor communication change.
Another type of eye movement is the eye roll. Take a look at “The Eye Roll” at tcbdevito.blogspot.com. Do you use the eye roll? What messages would you be most likely to communicate with the eye roll?
gay men and lesbians to signal their homosexuality and perhaps their interest in some- one—an ability referred to as “gaydar” (Nicholas, 2004).
n To signal status. Eye contact is often used to signal status and aggression. Among many
younger people, prolonged eye contact from a stranger is taken to signify aggressiveness and frequently prompts physical violence—merely because one person looked perhaps a little longer than was considered normal in that specific culture (Matsumoto, 1996).
n To compensate for physical distance. Eye contact is often used to compensate for in-
creased physical distance. By making eye contact you overcome psychologically the physi- cal distance between yourself and another person. When you catch someone’s eye at a party, for example, you become psychologically closer even though you may be separated by considerable physical distance.
eye avoidance
The eyes, sociologist Erving Goffman observed in Interaction Ritual (1967), are “great intruders.” When you avoid eye contact or avert your glance, you allow others to maintain their privacy. You probably do this when you see a couple arguing in the street or on a bus. You turn your eyes away, as if to say, “I don’t mean to intrude; I respect your privacy.” Goffman refers to this behavior as civil inattention.Eye avoidance also can signal lack of interest—in a person, a conversation, or some visual stimulus. At times, like the ostrich, we hide our eyes to try to cut off unpleasant stimuli. No- tice, for example, how quickly people close their eyes in the face of some extreme unpleasant- ness. Interestingly enough, even if the unpleasantness is auditory, we tend to shut it out by closing our eyes. At other times, we close our eyes to block out visual stimuli and thus to heighten our other senses; for example, we often listen to music with our eyes closed. Lovers often close their eyes while kissing, and many prefer to make love in a dark or dimly lit room.
Pupil Dilation
In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, Italian women used to put drops of belladonna (which literally means “beautiful woman”) into their eyes to enlarge the pupils so that they would look more attractive. Research in the field of pupillometrics supports the in- tuitive logic of these women: Dilated pupils are in fact judged more attractive than constricted ones (Hess, 1975; Marshall, 1983).In one study, for example, photographs of women were retouched (Hess, 1975). In one set of photographs the pupils were enlarged, and in the other they were made smaller. Men were then asked to judge the women’s personalities from the photographs. The photos of women with small pupils drew responses such as cold, hard, and selfish; those with dilated pupils drew responses such as feminine and soft. However, the male observers could not verbalize the reasons for the different perceptions. Both pupil dilation itself and people’s reactions to changes in the pupil size of others seem to function below the level of conscious awareness. Pupil size also reveals your interest and level of emotional arousal. Your pupils enlarge when you’re interested in something or when you’re emotionally aroused. When homosexuals and heterosexuals were shown pictures of nude bodies, the homosexuals’ pupils dilated more when viewing same-sex bodies, whereas the heterosexuals’ pupils dilated more when viewing opposite-sex bodies (Hess, Seltzer, & Schlien, 1965). These pupillary responses are uncon- scious and are even observed in persons with profound mental retardation (Chaney, Givens, Aoki, & Gombiner, 1989). Perhaps we find dilated pupils more attractive because we judge them as indicative of a person’s interest in us. That may be why models, Beanie Babies, and Teletubbies, for example, have exceptionally large pupils.
Although belladonna is no longer used, the cosmetics industry has made millions selling eye enhancers—eye shadow, eyeliner, false eyelashes, and tinted contact lenses that change eye color. These items function (ideally, at least) to draw attention to these most powerful communicators.
Culture and eye Communication
Not surprisingly, eye messages vary with both culture and gender. Americans, for example, consider direct eye contact an expression of honesty and forthrightness, but the Japanese often view this as showing a lack of respect. A Japanese person will glance at the other person’s face rarely, and then only for very short periodsWorking with
interpersonal Skills
How would other people rate you on immediacy? If you have no idea, ask a few friends. How would you rate yourself? In what situations might you express greater immediacy? In what situations might you express less immediacy?
Understanding Interpersonal Skills
iMMEdiACy
Immediacy is the creation of closeness, a sense of togetherness, of oneness, between
speaker and listener. When you communicate immediacy you convey a sense of inter- est and attention, a liking for and an attraction to the other person. You communicate immediacy with both verbal and nonverbal messages.
Not surprisingly, people respond to communication that is immediate more favor- ably than to communication that is not. People like people who communicate imme- diacy. You can increase your interpersonal attractiveness, the degree to which others like you and respond positively toward you, by using immediacy behaviors. In addition there is considerable evidence to show that immediacy behaviors are also effective in workplace communication, especially between supervisors and subordinates (Richmond, McCroskey, & Hickson, 2012). For example, when a supervisors uses immediacy behav- iors, he or she is seen by subordinates as interested and concerned; subordinates are therefore likely to communicate more freely and honestly about issues that can benefit the supervisor and the organization. Also, workers with supervisors who communicate immediacy behaviors have higher job satisfaction and motivation.
Not all cultures or all people respond in the same way to immediacy messages. For example, in the United States immediacy behaviors are generally seen as friendly and appropriate. In other cultures, however, the same immediacy behaviors may be viewed as overly familiar—as presuming that a relationship is close when only acquaintanceship exists (Axtell, 2007). Similarly, recognize that some people may take your immediacy behaviors as indicating a desire for increased intimacy in the relationship. So although you may be trying merely to signal a friendly closeness, the other person may perceive a romantic invitation. Also, recognize that because immediacy behaviors prolong and encourage in-depth communication, they may not be responded to favorably by per- sons who are fearful about communication and/or who want to get the interaction over with as soon as possible (Richmond, McCroskey, & Hickson, 2012).
Communicating Immediacy. Here are a few suggestions for communicating immedi-
acy verbally and nonverbally (Mottet & Richmond, 1998; Richmond, McCroskey, & Hickson, 2012):
n Self-disclose; reveal something significant about yourself.
n Refer to the other person's good qualities of, say, dependability, intelligence, or character—"you're always so reliable."
n Express your positive view of the other person and of your relationship—"I'm so glad you're my roommate; you know everyone."
n Talk about commonalities, things you and the other person have done together or share. n Demonstrate your responsiveness by giving feedback cues that indicate you want
to listen more and that you're interested—"And what else happened?"
n Express psychological closeness and openness by, for example, maintaining physical closeness and arranging your body to exclude third parties.
n Maintain appropriate eye contact and limit looking around at others. n Smile and express your interest in the other person.
n Focus on the other person's remarks. Make the speaker know that you heard and under- stood what was said, and give the speaker appropriate verbal and nonverbal feedback. At the same time that you'll want to demonstrate these immediacy messages, try also to avoid nonimmediacy messages, such as speaking in a monotone, looking away from the person you're talking to, frowning while talking, having a tense body posture, or avoiding gestures.
(Axtell, 2007). Interpreting another’s eye contact messages according to your own cultural rules is a risky undertaking; eye movements that you may interpret as insulting may have been intended to show respect.
Women make eye contact more and maintain it longer (both in speaking and in listening) than men. This holds true whether women are interacting with other women or with men. This difference in eye behavior may result from women’s greater tendency to display their emotions (Wood, 1994). When women interact with other women, they display affili- ative and supportive eye contact, whereas when men interact with other men, they avert their gaze (Gamble & Gamble, 2003).
Cultural differences also exist in the ways people decode the meanings of facial expressions. For example, American and Japanese students judged the meaning of a smiling and a neutral facial expression. The Americans rated the smiling face as more attractive, more intelligent, and more sociable than the neutral face. In contrast, the Japanese rated the smil- ing face as more sociable but not as more attractive—and they rated the neutral face as more intelligent (Matsumoto & Kudoh, 1993).