The biodiversity issue: context and complexity

How challenging is the indigenous biodiversity issue in New Zealand?

The extent of biodiversity in New Zealand is significant by world standards in terms of numbers of unique species and ecology. It is also under pressure and declining.468

Isolation of New Zealand from other landmasses for over sixty million years has led to a distinctive flora and fauna. There are over 2000 species of terrestrial endemic plants, a far greater but as yet un- quantified number of terrestrial endemic invertebrates, and an indigenous vertebrate fauna

dominated by birds and amphibians.469 _{Humans arrived in New Zealand probably about 800 years} ago, in the last stage of human global expansion (apart from Antarctica). The result was enormous change to New Zealand’s indigenous ecology, widespread habitat loss, and species extinctions. 470 Current pressure on indigenous biodiversity comes from predation and competition from invasive introduced species, land-use pressure and water quality decline, and marine resource exploitation.471 Nevertheless, massive habitat destruction that occurred in earlier times has been halted. 472 _New Zealand has created an extensive network of legally protected areas encompassing nearly 30% of the country. Many protected areas include remote regions. While New Zealand has tended to separate

468 _{Myers, "Biodiversity Hotspots for Conservation Priorities." Pp.853-858.}

469 _{Young, Our Islands, Our Selves: A History of Conservation in New Zealand. See Young’s Chapter 1 for a}

description of New Zealand’s biophysical characteristics and distinctiveness.

470 _{McGlone, "Dating Initial Maori Environmental Impact in New Zealand." Pp.5-16.} 471 _{MfE, Environment New Zealand 2007. P.313 & 349.}

6: Biodiversity policy

“protected” landscapes and uses from “productive” landscapes and uses, there are also many easily accessible protected areas close to major towns and cities.473

A range of interests are involved in nature conservation, with different, sometimes conflicting, motivations.474 _{These include: advocacy in support of nature conservation by environmental NGOs;} Maori cultural associations with species and places, and grievances arising from land acquisitions by the Crown (particularly those in the 19th _{and early 20}th _century);475 _{use by outdoor recreation groups;} concerns of rural land-users about weeds and pests spilling over from protected areas and regulation of landowners’ use of resources; territorial local government and regional councils exercising their land management functions and representing constituent views; and tourism industry desires to use protected areas and at the same time acknowledge their attraction for their customers and as a marketing brand. 476

Separation between so-called “protected” and “productive” landscapes, a large number of interests partly or actively supportive of nature conservation, the degree of ambiguity between Maori cultural support of nature conservation and grievance about loss of land, concern from land-users about actual and perceived constraint on use of resources because of nature conservation policies, and mixed motivations of the tourism industry all create complexity in addressing nature conservation issues in New Zealand.

Thus, New Zealand’s nature conservation challenge is at one level a biophysical problem (particularly the effect of invasive species). Understanding of the causes and extent of biodiversity decline is incomplete. New Zealand’s ecology is highly diverse and complex, and how it works is not well understood.477 _{Protecting biodiversity from invasive species across a wide range of ecosystems is} expensive, and the results of management actions are not guaranteed.478 _{At another level there are} human complexities that provide opportunities for action, but also constraints. At heart it is a tension between cost and values: the costs arising from protecting biodiversity in large areas of unpopulated biodiverse natural landscape in public ownership under taxpayer-funded government agency

management; and differing value perspectives arising first from debate about how to manage the

473 _{PCE, "Weaving Resiliance into Our Working Lands," (Wellington: Parliamentary Commissioner for the}

Environment, 2002). P.15.

474 _{———, "Creating Our Future: Sustainable Development in New Zealand," (Wellington: Parliamentary}

Commissioner fro the Environment, 2002). Pp.15-22. MfE, Environment New Zealand 2007. Pp.353-356.

475 _{WAI 262, http://www.waitangi-tribunal.govt.nz/scripts/reports/reports/262/05AC7023-0EEA-4ECC-8B6E-}

AB136A2EA7F8.pdf (accessed 6/8/2012).

476 _{Tourism generated a direct contribution to GDP of $6.9 billion, or 3.8 percent of GDP, in 2011. Tourism}

satellite account 2011, Statistics New Zealand,

http://www.stats.govt.nz/browse_for_stats/industry_sectors/Tourism/tourism-satellite-account- 2011/summary-results.aspx (accessed 6/8/2012).

477 _{DoC, "New Zealand Biodiversity Strategy." Pp.6-7.}

478 _{PCE, "Weaving Resilience into Our Working Lands: Future Role for Native Plants on Private Land,"}

6: Biodiversity policy

publicly held lands, and second how to encourage protection and enhancement of biodiversity on privately owned land and in populated areas.479

In summary,there are gaps in the scientific knowledge of cause and effect of biodiversity decline. Biodiversity protection in New Zealand is costly, in that it requires significant management

intervention. There is support for management action on the basis of cultural attachment and some recognition of economic value from activities such as tourism and marketing of national image. There is opposition to intervention where this impacts either on economic opportunity or individual or group rights, particularly rural property rights.480

Taken at face value, biodiversity issues present a moderate degree of complexity, rather than either a low level or a high level. The problem of biodiversity decline is publicly visible, but knowledge about means to address it is variable. There is considerable room for potential conflict, largely as a result of a clash of values about the means of addressing biodiversity decline. New Zealanders’ attachments to environmental values find their principal expression in nature conservation, and hence policies to enhance biodiversity protection, while they are likely to find support in principle, can also be the subject of passionate debate over ways and means.

The next section records efforts to develop a new national framework to address the problem of biodiversity decline.