DECOMPOSING MODERNITY Im a g e s o f H um an E x is te n c e in t h e w r i t i n g s o f E r n e s t B e c k e r
B y
S te p h e n W illia m M a r t in
A T H E S IS
in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the Masters Degree in Philosophical Foundat
in Philosophical Theology
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T h e I n s t i t u t e f o r C h r is t ia n S tu d ie s
A d v is o r : Jam es H. O lth u is
D e c e m b e r, 1992
T h is w o r k is n o t to b e c o p ie d w it h o u t t h e e x p r e s s w r i t t e n p e r m is s io n o f th e a u t h o r a n d t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r C h r is t ia n S tu d ie s .
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I n t h e a u tu m n a l c h il l o f 1989, E r n e s t B e c k e r w as t o me n o t h in g m o re th a n a nam e o n a l i s t o f s u p p le m e n ta l r e a d in g s f o r ray s e m in a r in P h ilo s o p h ic a l
T h e o lo g y a t th e I n s t i t u t e f o r C h r is t ia n S tu d ie s . W hen I c h a n c e d a c ro s s a c o p y o f h is T h e D e n ia l o f D e a th . I h a d n o id e a t h a t I w a s e m b a r k in g o n an
a d v e n t u r e t h a t w o u ld t a k e a lo n g t h r e e y e a r s t r u g g le , a g a in s t m a n y d a n g e rs a n d te m p t a t io n s , to c o m p le te .
I h a v e b e e n f o r t u n a t e i n t h a t I h a v e n o t t a k e n t h i s jo u r n e y in t o th e w o r ld o f E r n e s t B e c k e r a lo n e . T h e I n s t i t u t e f o r C h r is t ia n S tu d ie s has b ee n m y c o m m u n ity f o r th e s e p a s t y e a r s . I w is h to a c k n o w le d g e i t , a n d e s p e c ia lly th e f o llo w in g : m y m e n to r, J im O lt h u is ; m y in t e r n a l r e a d e r , B r ia n W alsh; a n d m y f r i e n d s a n d f e llo w j u n i o r m e m b e rs R ic h a rd M id d le to n , N ik A n s e ll a n d L o r i Y a c c a to . Y ou h a v e h e lp e d me k e e p m y r e s o lv e a n d p r e s s a h e a d . T h a n k s a re a ls o d u e to P r o fe s s o r D o n a ld E v a n s o f V ic t o r ia C o lle g e , U n iv e r s it y o f T o ro n to , w h o so g r a c io u s ly a g r e e d t o s e r v e as e x te r n a l r e a d e r o f t h i s w o r k .
I a ls o w is h t o a c k n o w le d g e th e c o m m u n ity o f C h r is t ia n s in Cape T o w n , S o u th A f r ic a — e s p e c ia lly m y f r ie n d s D ia n e D a v is a n d L e s le y F o r d r e d . Y o u r s t r u g g le t o be f a i t h f u l w it h in a d e c o m p o s in g a p a r th e id h a s in s p ir e d t h i s w o rk a n d h e lp e d me to t h i n k i t c o u ld m ake a d if f e r e n c e .
I s h o u ld a c k n o w le d g e t h e C h r is t ia n C o m m u n ity a t 678 E u c iid A v e ., ray hom e. Y ou h a v e p u t u p w it h m y m o o d in e s s a s I h a v e liv e d B e c k e r ’ s d re a m b y p r o x y .
L a s t ly , I w is h t o t h a n k t h e s u p e r v is o r s a t m y w o r k p la c e , L o c k s le y
R o b e rts o n , T a m a ra R a sm u sse n a n d R eb ecca L o v e r in g . Y ou h a v e b e e n g e n e ro u s
T h is w o r k is d e d ic a te d t o th e m e m o ry o f m y f a t h e r W illia m M a r tin (1 9 3 1 -1 9 8 7 )
DECOMPOSING MODERNITY: CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
A . THE "F A L L " OF MODERNITY...2
B . ERNEST BECKER AND THE DREAM OF ENLIGHTENMENT MAN...4
1. B e c k e r ’ s Images o f ’ Man’ ...4
2 . O ur T h e s is : F a c in g th e D e a th o f M o d e r n it y ’ s S e l f Im a g e s ... **5
3 . The P la n o f t h i s W ork: T r a c in g th e C a re e r o f M odern S e lf- Im a g e s in th e E rn e s t B e c k e r ’ s Two V is io n s o f ’ Man’ ... ...6
C. APPROACHING ERNEST BECKER... 8
1. B e c k e r and th e S o c ia l S c ie n c e s ... 8
2 . B e c k e r and T h e o lo g y ...8
3 . The D is t in c t i v e n e s s o f O ur A p p ro a c h ... 10
D. THE CULTURE OF MODERNITY... ...12
1. From D a rk Ages t o E n lig h te n m e n t... 12
2 . T h re e Modern T h e m e s :...13
a ) S e c u la r it y : The b an ish m e n t o f G o d ...14
b ) N a tu re as s ta g e f o r f a u s t ia n c o n q u e s t...15
c ) P ro g r e s s : A s e c u la r u t o p ia ...**1 6 3 . No More U to p ia s : The F a l l o f M o d e r n it y ... 17
CHAPTER ONE: HOMO POET A
I . INTRODUCTION: FUNDAMENTAL QUESTIONS AND THE "SCIENCE OF ’ MAN” ' ... 24
I I . AN ONTOLOGY OF STRIVING... 26
A . L IF E AND THE LIFE-WORLD... 26
1. The S t r i v i n g C h a r a c te r o f " L i f e " ... ... 26
2 . The L i f e - W o r l d ... 27
B . ACTION AND INSTINCT... 28
1. P r o g r e s s iv e Freedom o f R e a c t i v i t y ... 28
2 . A b s t r a c t io n ... 29
C. SUMMARY: THE NEED FOR A NEW STAGE IN EVOLUTION...29
I I I . FIRM MEANING: THE GOAL OF HUMAN STRIVING... 30
A. MEANING... 31
1. The A c h ie ve m e n t o f M e a n in g ... 31
2 . M eaning and S e lf- E s te e m ... 32
3 . M eaning and M a s te r y ... ... ... 33
4 . M e aning and C o n tin g e n c y ... 34
5 . The A lie n a t e d M odem C o n s c io u s n e s s ...35
B. SELF-ESTEEM...37
1. A n x i e t y . . . ... ... 37
2 . The O e d ip a l T r a n s i t i o n ...38
3 . The G endered D im e n s io n s o f th e O e d ip a l T r a n s i t i o n ... 39
C. STAGING THE SELF... 40
1. S o c i a l i t y as P ro b le m ... 41
2 . L e a r n in g th e L in e s : D e fe re n c e and D e m e a n o u r . . . ... . . . 4 1 3 . P ow er, Language and I d e n t i t y ...42
4 . The E conom ics o f S e lf- E s te e m ...43
5 . Summary and T r a n s i t i o n t o Homo P o e t a ... 44
IV . HOMO POETA AS NORMATIVE MODEL OF HUMAN BECOMING... 46
A . GOOD ART A l® BAD ART...46
1. The C a te g o ry o f th e A e s t h e t i c ... ...46
2 . T w is te d P e rs o n s ...48
3 . F e t is h is m ... ... ... 48
B . THE CONVERSION TO AUTHENTICITY...50
1. The P ro b le m o f S t r e n g t h ... ... 50
2 . C r i t i c a l R eason...51
3 . S o c ia l S e l f and Whole O b je c t s ...52
4 . The R e a s s e rt io n o f A utonom y... 53
C. a m CRITICISMS OF HOMO POETA... 54
1. P ro b le m s w it h th e Autonomous S e l f ... 54
2 . The N o r m a liz a t io n o f B ro k e n n e s s ...* ... 58
3 . The D i a l e c t i c s o f F reedom ...59
4 . L e a v in g Open th e Q u e s tio n o f God...59
CHAPTER TWO: HOMO HEROICA I . INTRODUCTION: THE BIRTH OF TRAGEDY... .... ...71
A . THE CHANGE IN TONE IN BECKER’ S LATER WORKS... 71
B . HOMO HERO ICA: THE NEW IMAGE OF ’ MAN’ ... ... 72
C. THE UNDERSIDE OF ’ MAN’ ... 74
I I . DEVELOPMENTAL AND STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF HOMO HEROICA...75
A . THE UNDERSIDE OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT...75
1. P r im a r y N a r c is s is m ... 75
2 . The D e n ia l o f D e a th ... 76
3 . R e p r e s s i o n . . . . ... 78
4 . The Causa S u i P r o j e c t ... ... 79
B . "IN D IV ID U A L IT Y WITHIN F IN IT U D E ": A SHIFT IN THE STRUCTURE
OF BECKER’ S THEORY... 81
1. The T r a n s i t i o n fro m Monism t o D u a l i s m . . . ... 81
2 . D u a lis m ... 82
3 . B ody and S o u l...83
4 . T w in O n t o lo g ic a l M o t iv e s ... 84
5 . The D o u b le B in d o f G u i l t ... * ...85
C. CONCLUSION: TRAGIC ’ MAN’ ...87
I I I . THE DYNAMICS OF CULTURE... 88
A . TRANSFERENCE...89
B. CULTURE AND THE ARMOURED IN DIVIDU AL... 90
C. THE CULTURAL CAUSA ... 91
D. PROSPECTS FOR MODERNITY... 93
IV . IMPOSSIBLE PARADOX AND THE CLOSURE OF HUMAN P O S S IB ILIT Y ... 95
A . THE INESCAPABLE NEED FOR ILLUSIO N... 95
1. C r i t i c i s i n g th e C r i t i c s ...95
2 . C r e a t iv e I l l u s i o n ... 97
3 . The L i m i t s o f S c ie n c e ... 98
4 . D ra w in g th e B a la n c e S h e e t... 99
B. COSMIC HEROICS...100
1. A C r e a t io n a l S ta g e ...100
2 . A R e lig io u s V i s i o n ... .. 102
( a ) C u lt u r e as R e l i g i o n ... 102
( b ) R e lig io n as A l t e r n a t i v e t o C u l t u r e ...104
C. PROBLEMS WITH BECKER’ S VIEW... 105
1. I n d i v i d u a l i t y W it h in F i n i t u d e ... 106
2 . S c ie n c e and R e lig io n , o r th e R e lig io n o f S c ie n c e ? ... 107
3 . "R e p re s s io n o f R e a l i t y " and " R e la t iv e U n r e p r e s s io n " ... 109
4 . B e c k e r ’ s In a c c e s s a b le G od... 110
CONCLUSION: ERNEST BECKER AND MODERNITY’ S WORLD WELL LOST A . INSCRIBING THE MODERN CONDITION... 123
B. A RESUME...124
1. N a tu r e and th e I r r a t i o n a l ... ... 124
2 . Response t o E v i l : P r o te s t o r A c c e p ta n c e ? ...126
3 . Abandoned on th e P la n e t ... 128
C. RETROSPECT: ERNEST ISRAEL BECKER, 1 9 2 4 -1 9 7 4 ... ...130
D. A V IG IL OF AN TICIPATIO N...135
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION
A n a u tu m n a l c h i l l is in th e a ir ; it s s im i la r it y to th e c h i l l in o t h e r p e r io d s o f c u l t u r a l d e c lin e is u n d e n ia b le . O ne c a n p o in t n o t o n ly to v a s t s h i f t s in g e o p o litic a l b a la n c e s o f p o w e r b u t a ls o to th e a p p a r e n t d is in t e g r a t io n o f o u r r e ig n in g id e o lo g ie s (E a s t a n d W est a lik e ) . I t is e v e n m o re t h e s e n s e ... t h a t th e in t e lle c t u a l a n d s p i r i t u a l h e a r t o f th e c u l t u r e , i t s c o n fid e n c e in s c ie n c e , te c h n o lo g y a n d a n e x p a n d in g
in d u s t r ia li s m , h a s com e u p o n d i f f i c u l t i f n o t s e lf - c o n t r a d ic t o r y a n d s e lf d e s t r u c t iv e d a y s , a n d t h a t th e c u lt u r e as a w h o le is t h u s e n t e r in g a " tim e o f t r o u b le s " o f v e r y d e e p s c o p e .
(L a n g d o n G ilk e y ) 1
T h e h a r v e s t is p a s t, th e s u m m e r is e n d e d , a n d w e a re n o t s a v e d .
(J e re m ia h 8 :2 0 )2
A . THE " F A L L " OF MODERNITY
I n t h e s p a c e o f a fe w m o n th s t h e w o r ld a s we w e s te r n e r s k n e w i t came t o a n e n d . T h o s e e v e n ts c e n t r e d a r o u n d th e a d v e n t s e a s o n o f 1989 o v e r to o k u s w it h a b lin d i n g s p e e d . T h e B e r lin w a il f e l l , th e I r o n C u r ta in l i f t e d fr o m E a s te rn
E u r o p e ( e n d in g t h e f o r t y y e a r lo n g " c o ld w a r " — a n d t h e j u s t c a u s e f o r th o s e o n t h e r i g h t ) a n d N e lso n M a n d e la w as re le a s e d fr o m p r is o n w h ile F.W. d e K le r k
(w h o s e p o w e r e m b o d ie d p e r h a p s t h e m ost p o p u la r " c a u s e " o n t h e l e f t ) p ro m is e d r e f o r m . T h e o ld e n e m ie s d is a p p e a r e d a n d a "n e w w o r ld o r d e r " w as in a u g u r a t e d .
A t le a s t t h a t was th e v ie w fr o m W a s h in g to n . I t seem ed f i t t i n g t h a t F r a n c is F u k u y a m a h a d i n t h e s u m m e r o f t h a t y e a r p ro c la im e d " t h e e n d o f h i s t o r y . " T h e g r a n d d re a m o f m o d e r n ity , i t s p r o g r e s s m y th , seem ed t o h a v e b e e n f u l f i l l e d i n t h e e v e n ts o f t h a t y e a r . L ik e i n t h e e n d in g o f a w e s te r n ,
" t h e g o o d g u y s h a d w o n ." B u t t h e r e was l i t t l e o r n o c e le b r a tio n . F o r a d e e p e r ma la is e re m a in e d i n t h e h e a r t s , i f n o t t h e h e a d s , o f w e s te r n p e o p le .
T a k e f o r e x a m p le th e r e c e s s io n t h a t t h e w o r ld p lu n g e d in t o s h o r t l y a f t e r th e s e e v e n ts ; o r ta k e t h e e n v ir o n m e n t a l d is a s te r s , (m o s t n o t a b ly i n 1989 t h a t o f t h e E xxo n V a ld e z ), w h e re sea a n d s k y a r e p o is o n e d t o f e e l t h e m e ch a n ism s o f m o d e r n it y ; 3 o r ta k e t h e p e t t y l i t t l e w a r s t a r t e d u n d e r t h e p r e te n c e s o f t h e
" n e w w o r ld o r d e r , " a w a r w h ic h p o m m e lle d a t h i r d w o r ld c o u n t r y f o r th e s a k e o f l i b e r a t i n g a r e p r e s s iv e d i c t a t o r s h ip ; o r t a k e s im p ly t h e f a c t t h a t t h e t r iu m p h o f c a p ita lis m o v e r co m m u n ism h a s q u i e t ly r e p r e s s e d th e r e a li t y t h a t e co n o m ic i n e q u a l i t y g r o w s in th e f r e e m a r k e t w e s t.4 B ob G o u d z w a a rd u s e s t h e im a g e o f
o n to p o f e a c h o t h e r . 5
S e n s itiv e c u l t u r a l o b s e r v e r s a re c o n c lu d in g t h a t w e liv e in a d e c lin in g a g e . O nce t h e E n lig h te n m e n t s u n g a s e c u la r iz e d v e r s io n o f A m a z in g G ra ce ( " I o n c e w a s lo s t b u t n o w am fo u n d , t ’ w a s b lin d b u t n o w I s e e .” ). Now D o u g la s J o h n H a ll u s e s t h e m e ta p h o r o f " n i g h t " t o d e s c r ib e t h e m o d e rn s e n s e .6 Once t h e E n lig h te n m e n t d e n o te d " t h e d a w n in g o f a n e w d a y . " Now L a n g d o n G ilk e y t a lk s a b o u t a n " a u tu m n a l c h i l l " a n d R o b e rt H e ilb r o n e r a b o u t th e e n d o f
" p r o m e th e a n m a n ."7 B u t n o t a ll a re n e g a tiv e as th e s e t h r e e . W a lte r T r u e t t A n d e rs o n , f o r in s ta n c e , t a lk s o f a n e w " p o s tm o d e r n " c o n s c io u s n e s s a r is in g o u t o f th e fr a g m e n te d h o r iz o n s o f m o d e r n it y . 8 E r n e s t B e c k e r, th e s u b je c t o f t h is e s s a y , t h o u g h t t h a t a tim e o f d e a th w as a ls o p o t e n t ia ll y a tim e o f r e b i r t h ; t h a t a tim e o f d e c lin e w as a ls o p o t e n t ia lly a tim e o f r e n e w a l.9
A n i n s i g h t f u l d ia g n o s is o f o u r tim e s lo o k s b e h in d th e h e a d lin e s a n d u n d e r n e a t h t h e a p p e a r a n c e s (s y m p to m s ) to a d d r e s s t h e d r i v i n g m o tiv e s o f a c u lt u r e , i t s im p e llin g s p i r i t . A t th e same tim e i t is s e n s itiv e to th o s e a r t if a c t s (s y m b o ls , s t o r ie s , s o n g s ) w h ic h id e n t i f y th e c u lt u r e , s in c e th e s p i r i t o f a c u lt u r e is a lw a y s in c a r n a t e in s u c h t h in g s . S u c h a r e a d in g d a re s , as B ob G o u d z w a a rd s a y s , to h o ld u p a m i r r o r a n d to lo o k o u r s e lv e s f u l l in t h e fa c e .10 T h is is a h a r d t h i n g to d o , h o w e v e r, s in c e in q u e s t io n in g o u r t r a d i t i o n we a ls o q u e s tio n o u r s e lv e s .
I t is a s ig n o f t h e tim e s t h a t w h a t D a v id T r a c y has c a lle d th e " p l u r a l i t y a n d a m b ig u it y " o f a ll t r a d i t i o n s 11 is n o w g r a d u a lly b e in g a c k n o w le d g e d . A n d i t is a s ig n o f t h e tim e s t h a t o u r t r a d i t i o n h a s b ecom e q u e s tio n a b le . (We s h o u ld n o t m iss t h e i r o n y h e r e : th e E n lig h te n m e n t w a s t h a t m o v e m e n t t h a t c a lle d in t o q u e s tio n a ll " o t h e r " t r a d i t i o n s . ) Was th e E n lig h te n m e n t a p t ly nam ed as th e c o m in g o f a g e o f h u m a n ity , o r d o we s a y w it h A la s d a ir M a c In ty r e t h a t i t
w a s a p e r io d o f d e e p e s t d a r k n e s s w h e re h u m a n ity a c tu a lly lo s t i t s w a y?
S e lf e x a m in a tio n is th e w a tc h w o rd f o r some. A n d in m o d e r n it y ’ s d a r k n i g h t o f th e s o u l, i t s "tim e o f t r i a l s " (as L a n g d o n G ilk e y c a lle d i t in o u r i n t r o d u c t o r y q u o te ) , th e q u e s t io n a b ilit y o f th e m o d e rn p r o je c t b r in g s " t h e g r a v e s t s o r t o f a n x i e t y . " “ i f L e s s lie N e w b ig in is r i g h t in s a y in g t h a t
" E n lig h t e n m e n t " is a c o n v e r s io n w o r d 13 th e n t h i s a n x ie ty c o n c e r n s o u r d e e p e s t r e lig io u s r o o ts .
I t is t h e r e f o r e u r g e n t t h a t , a t t h e e n d ( in b o th th e te m p o ra l a n d
e x is t e n t ia l s e n s e o f " e n d i n g " ) o f th e t w e n t ie t h c e n t u r y , m o d e r n it y c o n f r o n t i t s o w n s e lf im a g e s . T h is m eans r e c a llin g th e h op e s w h ic h g a v e b i r t h to th e m o d e r n s p i r i t , a s w e ll as t h e fe a r s w h ic h n o w c h a r a c te r iz e it s d em ise.
B. ERNEST BECKER AND THE DREAM OF EN LIG HTENM EN T MAN I . B e c k e r ’ s Im a g e s o f ’ M a n ’ 14
I n t h e w r i t i n g s o f E r n e s t B e c k e r (1 9 2 4 -1 9 7 4 ), th e h ig h s a n d t h e lo w s , th e h o p e s a n d t h e f e a r s , th e a n t ic ip a t io n a n d th e d re a d t h a t seem to c h a r a c te r iz e th e m o d e rn s p i r i t a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y e v id e n t . T h a t is w h y he is th e o b je c t o f t h i s s t u d y . B e c k e r — w h o was d e s c r ib e d b y a f o r m e r s t u d e n t as " a m an w h o
e x e m p lifie d , in b o t h h is te a c h in g a n d s c h o la r s h ip , a p a s s io n a te a n d p r o fo u n d c o m m itm e n t to h u m a n is t v a lu e s " 15— o n c e s h a re d in t h a t E n lig h te n m e n t f a i t h t h a t sa w th e e a r t h as a s ta g e f o r th e f u t u r e a p o th e o s is o f h u m a n ity . He c la im e d t h a t t h i s f a i t h n e e d e d to s p re a d in t o t h e p r e s e n t tim e , t h a t h um an s n e e d e d to u n c o v e r t h e i r o w n p o t e n t ia l as a u to n o m o u s c r e a tu r e s . A n d y e t B e c k e r a ls o came to see t h a t a u to n o m y w as a n illu s io n , a n d t h a t t h e c a r e e r o f
’ m a n ’ o n t h e p la n e t w as in c id e n t a l t o th e e a r t h . 16
B e c k e r o n c e i d e n t if ie d ’ m a n ’ as " t h e a n im a l t h a t h o ld s u p a m i r r o r to
h im s e lf . " 17 W hen he lo o k e d in t o th e m ir r o r , B e c k e r saw tw o im a g e s r e f le c t in g b a c k . He te rm e d th e s e im a g e s Homo p o e ta a n d Hom o h e ro ic a . T h e f o r m e r saw
’ m a n ’ as a p r o d u c t o f a g r a n d p ro c e s s o f e m e rg e n t e v o lu t io n , th e p in n a c le o f n a t u r e s t r i v i n g to w a r d fre e d o m . T h is v is io n is c h a r a c t e r iz e d b y o p tim is m c o n c e r n in g h u m a n p o s s i b il it y . I f ’ m a n ’ c o u ld b u t c o m p le te t h e p ro c e s s o f d e ta c h m e n t fr o m i n s t i n c t i v e b e h a v io u r , fro m f o llo w in g " t h e h e r d , " fr o m th e c o n s t r a in t s o f " c u l t u r e , " th e n th e f u l f i lm e n t o f t h e l if e p ro c e s s w o u ld be a c h ie v e d .
B u t t h i s im a g e w as to o o p t im is t ic . L a t e r B e c k e r came t o see t h a t i t s c re e n e d o u t to o e a s ily th e v ic io u s b e h a v io u r t h a t ’ m a n ’ w as c a p a b le o f; a n d t h a t m o d e rn ’ m a n ’ w as in d e e d d o in g . C o m in g to te r m s w it h th e d a r k s id e o f
’ m a n ’ m e a n t f o r B e c k e r f o r m u la t in g a n e w im a g e . Homo h e ro ic a r e f le c t s an o n t o lo g ic a l p a ra d o x . L im itle s s h o r iz o n s a re n o w lim ite d b y n a t u r e , b y th e b o d y . T h e a tte m p t t o fo r m u la te a lim itle s s h o r iz o n is d o n e in th e te e th o f n a t u r e , a n d is t h e o r i g i n o f h u m a n ly c r e a te d e v il. A u to n o m y is a n illu s io n .
’ M a n ’ m u s t n o w a d a p t a n d w a it.
W h ile d i f f e r e n t in th e s e w a y s , b o th th e s e im a g e s a r e a n im a te d b y th e same s p i r i t : a m o d e rn s p i r i t t h a t saw ’ m a n ’ as t h e o p e n c r e a t u r e a n d th e e a r th as m e a n in g fu l o n ly in te r m s o f b e in g a " s t a g e " f o r h is e m e rg e n c e . We n o w t u r n to th e t h r u s t o f t h i s e s s a y .
2. O u r T h e s is : F a c in g th e D e a th o f M o d e r n it y ’ s S e lf Im a g e s
E r n e s t B e c k e r ’ s m o s t fa m o u s w o r k , e n t it le d T h e D e n ia l o f D e a th , c o n te n d e d t h a t ’ m a n ’ is lo c a te d in t h e in t e r s t i c e s o f p a ra d o x , t h a t ’ m a n ’ s ’ q u e s t f o r a w o r ld as s ta g e f o r tr a n s c e n d e n c e in s p ite o f h is lim it a t io n s fo rm s th e b a s ic c o n te x t f o r a ll h u m a n a c t i v i t y . He c la im e d t h a t d e a th is a c o m p le x s y m b o l th a t
s p e a k s n o t s im p ly o f d e c a y in t o th e g r a v e , b u t o f th e lo s s o f c o n t r o l o v e r s e lf a n d w o r ld . S in c e t h i s is p r e c is e ly t h e w a y t h a t m a n y m o d e rn p e o p le e x p e rie n c e t h e i r w o r ld , we s h a ll t h e r e f o r e e x p lo r e th e w o r k o f B e c k e r as a t r a c in g o u t o f t h i s a w a re n e s s a s t h a t o f a m o d e rn p e r s o n f a c in g a w o r ld w e ll lo s t. We s h a ll e s p e c ia lly ta k e n o te o f t h e s e n s e o f h o m e le s s n e s s in th e w o r ld d is c lo s e d b y b o th im a g e s . T h e s e im a g e s , a n d t h e i r d e a th , m u s t b e " o w n e d " , a n d " l e t g o " b e fo re n e w n e s s c a n b e h o p e d f o r . E r n e s t B e c k e r can h e lp s h o w u s th e w a y to n ew t r u s t a n d h o p e .
3. T h e P la n o f t h i s W o rk : T r a c in g t h e C a re e r o f M o d e rn S e lf-Im a g e s in th e E r n e s t B e c k e r ’ s T w o Im a g e s o f ’ M a n ’
T h e r e m a in d e r o f t h i s i n t r o d u c t io n s h a ll b e c o n c e rn e d w it h c o n te x t. T h e f i r s t is th e c o n te x t o f B e c k e r ’ s o w n w o r k : How w as i t re c e iv e d ? T h e s e c o n d in t h is c o n te x t o f th e p r e s e n t w o r k : How d o e s i t b u ild u p o n a n d d i f f e r fro m o t h e r s tu d ie s o f B e c k e r? T h e t h i r d c o n c e rn s t h e b r o a d e r s o c ie ta l c o n te x t: w h a t a re some o f t h e s a lie n t f e a t u r e s o f m o d e r n it y r e le v a n t to a s t u d y o f B e c k e r?
T h e tw o c h a p t e r s s h a ll e x e g e te t h e tw o im a g e s o f ’ m a n ’ p r e s e n te d b y B e c k e r. C h a p te r o n e s h a ll b e g in w it h a n e x a m in a tio n o f B e c k e r ’ s e a r ly
o n t o lo g y w h e r e in t h e s t r i v i n g l if e p ro c e s s is se e n as o r ie n t e d to w a r d fre e d o m , w h ic h m e a ns fre e d o m fr o m e n s la v e m e n t t o p r e - p r o g r a m m e d i n s t in c t s . We s h a ll see h o w B e c k e r sa w ’ m a n ’ as t h e o p e n c r e a tu r e , b o u n d le s s in h o r iz o n ,
p o t e n t ia lly c r e a t in g h is o w n w o r ld — a n d r e - c r e a t in g h im s e lf— in r e n d e r in g a g r e y a n d n e u t r a l w o r ld m e a n in g fu l. We s h a ll o b s e r v e h o w B e c k e r saw c u lt u r e as th e w a y t h i s p ro c e s s w a s c o m p ro m is e d b y an e n s la v e m e n t to th e w il l o f th e h e r d w h ic h he te r m e d " s y m b o lic r e i n s t i n c t i v i z a t i o n . " F in a lly we s h a ll ta k e n o te o f th e w a y s e lf a n d c u lt u r e c r it ic is m o p e n e d th e w a y , f o r h im , to a u t h e n t ic i n d i v i d u a l i t y .
T h e n e x t c h a p t e r s h a ll b e g in w it h B e c k e r ’ s o w n s e lf - c r it ic i s m o f h is s u p p r e s s io n o f t h e d a r k s id e o f h u m a n s t r i v i n g . We s h a ll see th e w a y he c h a r a c t e r is e d Hom o h e ro ic a as w o r k in g a d is t in c t i v e g i f t o n to th e w o r ld c o n s id e r e d n o lo n g e r as g r e y a n d n e u t r a l b u t a s v io le n t a n d ir r a t io n a l . T h e c r e a t u r e , f o r m e r ly d e fin e d as o n e w it h lim itle s s h o r iz o n s , is n o w r e - d e s c r ib e d as r a d ic a l ly lim it e d , a s f i n i t e a n d m o rta l, f r a u g h t w it h o n to lo g ic a l p a ra d o x e s . We s h a ll see B e c k e r ’ s c r it ic i s m o f th o s e ( in c lu d in g h im s e lf f o r m e r ly ) w h o saw h um an n a t u r e as t r a n s f o r m a b le . I t is in p a ra d o x t h a t h u m a n n a t u r e is lo c a te d , a n d w it h o u t p a r a d o x h u m a n n a t u r e w o u ld be im p o s s ib le . We m u s t b a la n c e th e te n s io n s b e tw e e n i n d iv id u a t io n a n d id e n t if ic a t io n a n d b e tw e e n n a r c is s is t ic s e lf
in f l a t i o n a n d y ie ld in g to o t h e r s . T h e w a y to d o t h i s is t o r e a s s e r t r e lig io n . T h e s e tw o c h a p t e r s a r e fo llo w e d b y a b r i e f re s u m e w h ic h s h a ll e xa m in e c o n t in u it ie s a n d d is c o n t in u it ie s w it h in th e s e im a g e s . B o th im a g e s , as w e s h a ll see, d is p la y t h e v ie w t h a t m e a n in g is fo u n d in a u to n o m o u s c o n t r o l a n d t h a t th e f a l l o f ’ m a n ’ c o n s is ts in t h e lo s s o f c o n t r o l. D is c o n t in u it y is d is p la y e d in th e c o n t r a s t b e tw e e n Hom o p o e ta w h o lo s e s c o n t r o l in a p ro c e s s o f s o c ia liz a tio n (a n d w h o t h e r e f o r e ca n r e g a in i t b y o v e r c o m in g s o c ie ty ) a n d Homo h e ro ic a in w h o m t h e lo s s o f c o n t r o l is c o n s t it u t iv e to h is b e in g . We s h a ll e n t it le o u r c o n c lu s io n "A W o rld W ell L o s t " b e c a u s e , o u t o f c o n t r o l, m o d e rn ’ m a n ’ lo se s th e w o r ld in t r y i n g t o g a in h im s e lf a n d t r a g i c a ll y w in d s u p lo s in g h im s e lf as w e ll.
A n d i t fo llo w s t h a t m o d e rn ’ m a n ’ m u s t fa c e h is o w n e n d a n d h o p e f o r r e s u r r e c t io n . T h e r e f o r e t h i s e s s a y c o n c lu d e s w it h t h e im a g e o f a re q u ie m v i g i l.
T o r e t u r n t o th e m i r r o r im a g e , B e c k e r has s h o w n u s w h a t w e a re . O n ly in f a c in g i t c a n we h o p e b e y o n d i t s d e m ise .
C. APPROACHING ERNEST BECKER 1. B e c k e r a n d t h e S o c ia l S c ie n c e s
B e c k e r w as t h r o u g h o u t h is c a r e e r a m a r g in a l f i g u r e in h is o w n a re a o f a c a d e m ic in t e r e s t . B e c k e r ’ s w r i t i n g s , e s p e c ia lly h is e a r lie r o n e s , re c e iv e d m ix e d r e v ie w s in th e w o r ld o f a c a d e m ic s o c ia l s c ie n c e . W h ile P h ilip B o s s e rm a n t h o u g h t t h a t B e c k e r ’ s w o r k " c o u ld n o t be m o re t im e ly , " a n d t h a t T h e S t r u c t u r e o f E v i l " c o u ld v e r y w e ll h a v e b e e n th e b a s ic s o u r c e f o r t h e S to c k h o lm
C o n fe r e n c e " ( in 1969 on " T h e P la ce o f V a lu e in a W o rld o f F a c t " ) , 13 o th e r s w e r e n o t n e a r ly a s k in d . 19
R o b e rt J a y L if t o n n o te d in h is r e v ie w o f E s c a p e F ro m E v i l , t h a t B e c k e r h a d a r e p u t a t io n o f b e in g , " w i l d l y a s s o c ia tiv e , d r a m a tic a lly e x is t e n t ia l. .. a n d le s s t h a n s y s t e m a t ic . " 20 C o n s e q u e n tly h is id e a s h a v e n o t b e e n d e v e lo p e d to a n y l a r g e e x te n t. T h e r e is n o " B e c k e r S c h o o l o f T h o u g h t " t o w h ic h w e ca n a p p e a l.
T h e r e a re n o f e s ts c h r ifte n g i v i n g v a r ia t io n s o n h is th e m e s .21 T h e r e a re no d is c ip le s c a r r y i n g o n h is le g a c y . 22 I f w e w is h to r e c o v e r th e s ig n ific a n c e o f B e c k e r f o r to d a y , w e s h a ll n e e d t o t u r n e ls e w h e re .
2. B e c k e r a n d T h e o lo g y
T h e f a c t t h a t h is w r i t i n g s n e v e r r e c e iv e d w id e a c c e p ta n c e in th e s o c ia l s c ie n c e s n e v e r seem ed to b o t h e r B e c k e r. R ig h t b e fo r e he d ie d B e c k e r s a id t h a t h is g r e a t e s t c o n t r ib u t io n w a s a c t u a lly in th e d e liv e r in g o v e r o f th e s o c ia l s c ie n c e s t o a m e r g e r w it h t h e o lo g y . 23
Some th e o lo g ia n s h a v e m ade u s e o f B e c k e r ’ s w r i t i n g s . D o u g la s J o h n H all a n d S a lly K e n e l, f o r e x a m p le , u s e B e c k e r as a d ia lo g u e p a r t n e r f o r d e v e lo p in g
" c o n t e x t u a l " a n d '’ fu n d a m e n ta l" th e o lo g ie s r e s p e c t iv e ly . T h e ir w o r k is aim ed a t th e c o n s t r u c t io n o f a " r e l e v a n t " th e o lo g y w h ic h a p p e a ls to th e "m a in s tre a m "
a c a d e m y .24
H a ll f o r e x a m p le sees m u c h p o t e n t ia l in B e c k e r ’ s id e a o f th e " c r e a t iv e i l l u s i o n " as p o in t in g to th e re a p p e a r a n c e o f r e lig io n in r e la t io n to th e d a r k n e s s o f o u r tim e . B e c k e r ’ s w o r k f o c u s in g o n th e d a r k s id e o f h u m a n e x is te n c e o p e n s u p s p a c e f o r a th e o lo g y o f t h e c r o s s — a s t r o n g m o tiv e in H a ll’ s th e o lo g ic a l
p r o g r a m .
We h a v e n o t f o u n d H a ll’ s r e a d in g o f B e c k e r to be s a t i s f y in g , h o w e v e r. I n o u r v ie w he m e re ly b a p tiz e s B e c k e r ’ s p r o b le m a tic v ie w o f th e n a t u r e o f t r u t h a n d i t s r e la t io n to r e p r e s s io n . B e c k e r ’ s c la im t h a t w e n e e d " c r e a t iv e illu s io n s "
is fo u n d e d o n t h e E n lig h te n m e n t d is t in c t i o n b e tw e e n " t r u t h , " r e a l i t y , " a n d
" s c ie n c e " o n th e o n e h a n d a n d "m e a n in g , " m y t h " a n d " r e l i g i o n " on th e o th e r . H a ll’ s w o r k , w h ile in m a n y w a y s p r o v o c a t iv e , becom es s im p ly a n o th e r
e v a n g e liz a t io n o f t h e E n lig h te n m e n t.
H a ll a n d K e n e l a ls o te n d t o p ic k a n d c h o o s e a m o n g B e c k e r ’ s w o r k s . T h is is a n o t h e r d i f f i c u l t y we h a v e w it h t h e i r a p p ro a c h . T h e y te n d , as do m ost o t h e r t r e a t m e n t s o f B e c k e r , to c o n c e n tr a te o n T h e D e n ia l o f D e a th . W h ile t h e i r
e x p o s it io n s a re g e n e ro u s , t h e y b r a c k e t o f f B e c k e r ’ s e a r lie r w o r k w h ic h in it s o p tim is m s e ts u p h is l a t e r v ie w o f ’ m a n ’ as a t r a g i c f ig u r e .
One e x c e p tio n to t h i s b r a c k e t in g te n d e n c y m ig h t b e F r e d e r ic k S o n ta g . In h is c o lle c t io n o f e s s a y s e n t it le d T h e R e tu r n o f th e G o d s ,25 S o n ta g d oes fo c u s h is a t t e n t i o n o n B e c k e r ’ s e a r lie r w o r k . H o w e v e r w e h a v e b e e n d is a p p o in te d b y t h i s w o r k . S o n ta g sees n o d e v e lo p m e n t in B e c k e r, a t t a c k in g h im as a s ta tic e n t i t y , m a k in g n o d is t in c t io n b e tw e e n h is e a r lie r a n d h is la t e r w o r k . S on ta g w a n ts to r e c o v e r t h e o lo g y a n d m e ta p h y s ic s as c la s s ic a l d is c ip lin e s w h ic h we h a v e " l o s t " a n d n e e d to r e g a in . B u t S o n ta g is s im p ly w r o n g w h e n he cla im s t h a t B e c k e r t r i e s , u n s u c c e s s fu lly , to do a w a y w it h th e g o d s . " P r o v in g " h is
p o in t t h a t we n e e d to g e t b a c k to " o ld fa s h io n e d t h e o lo g y " in v o lv e s m a k in g B e c k e r a s c a p e g o a t.
O th e r th e o lo g ia n s h a v e t r e a t e d B e c k e r ’ s c o n c e p ts to a c a r e f u l s c r u t in y , c h i e f l y c o n c e r n in g th e w a y B e c k e r u ses te r m s lik e " f i n i t u d e " a n d
" t r a n s c e n d e n c e " to illu m in a t e h um an e x is te n c e .“ U n f o r t u n a t e ly , B e c k e r ’ s s y n t h e t i c s t y le a n d u n d e r ly in g in t e g r a t iv e in t e n t io n s m a ke s u c h a n a p p ro a c h d i f f i c u l t . He h im s e lf a d m itte d t h a t he s a c r if ic e d t h e o r e t ic a l p r e c is io n f o r th e s a k e o f c o m m u n ic a tin g h is u r g e n t m e s s a g e .27
In d e e d B e c k e r has bee n c r it ic is e d f o r t h i s lo o se u s e o f c o n c e p ts .28 H o w e v e r w h e n o n e re c o g n iz e s B e c k e r as t r y i n g t o a cco m m o d a te a n e n t ir e t r a d i t i o n , t h a t o f E n lig h te n m e n t s o c ia l s c ie n c e , a n d t o in t e g r a t e i t in t o a f r a m e w o r k t h a t re v e a ls w h a t he t h o u g h t w as i t s t r a n s f o r m in g p o w e r, w e can u n d e r s t a n d w h y h is te r m s a re so o ft e n a m o rp h o u s .29 I f " t h e h u m a n s c ie n c e s "
h a v e r e v e a le d w h a t a n d w h o we r e a lly a re , th e n t h e c o n t r i b u t io n s o f e ach s c ie n c e 30 a r e v a lid to t h i s la r g e r u n d e r s t a n d in g . L ik e s ta in e d g la s s , e ach c o lo u r s in i t s o w n w a y t h e l i g h t t h a t s h in e s o n t h e h u m a n c o n d it io n fr o m th e E n lig h t e n m e n t . I t is " t h e la r g e r u n d e r s t a n d in g " t h a t we a re in t e r e s t e d in . W h a t d oes B e c k e r see w h e n he lo o k s a t h u m a n a c t i v i t y t h r o u g h th e h um an s c ie n c e s ?
3. T h e D is t in c t iv e n e s s o f O u r A p p ro a c h
A lt h o u g h w e s h a ll in th e c o u r s e o f t h i s th e s is d is c u s s some o f t h e s p e c ific c a te g o r ie s t h a t B e c k e r u s e s in h is a n a ly s is , i t is im p o r t a n t to r e s ta te t h a t we a r e n o t a f t e r a s im p le e v a lu a tio n o f th e c o n c e p tu a l c o h e re n c e o f h is
f o r m u la t io n s . N o r a re we in t e r e s t e d , as K e n e l is , in d e v e lo p in g a fo r m a l t h e o lo g ic a l m e th o d in in t e r a c t io n w it h B e c k e r. N o r do w e w is h , as H a ll does,
t o c u t o u t c e r t a in "g o o d id e a s " fr o m B e c k e r ’ s c o r p u s — a s o r t o f t e x t u a l a u to p s y .
We a re in t e r e s t e d in v is io n . M o d e rn v is io n . We w a n t to lo o k , w ith
B e c k e r, in t o th e m ir r o r im a g e s o f m o d e r n it y . O u r g u i d in g a s s u m p tio n s h a ll b e t h a t w h a t som eone sees, e s p e c ia lly a s e n s itiv e o b s e r v e r lik e B e c k e r, is re la te d to a fu n d a m e n ta l v is io n o f h u m a n n e s s . T h is v is io n is d y n a m ic , n o t s ta tic . I t is fo r m u la te d c o n t in u a lly in in t e r a c t io n w it h th e n e w s p a p e rs , jo u r n a l a r t ic le s , r e la t io n s h ip s a n d s e tb a c k s t h a t m ake u p o n e ’ s lif e i n c u lt u r e .
T h is fu n d a m e n ta l v is io n th e n , w h ic h we h a v e a lr e a d y id e n t if ie d in B e c k e r as b e in g b o th o p t im is t ic a n d t r a g i c , is th e fo c u s o f t h i s e s s a y . F u n d a m e n ta l v is io n s a re n o t s im p ly a e s t h e t ic in c h a r a c t e r , h o w e v e r. T h e q u a lif ie r
" f u n d a m e n ta l" m eans t h a t s u c h v is io n s c o n c e rn t h e v e r y g r o u n d o f o n e ’ s e x is te n c e , a n a c c o u n tin g f o r e v i l a n d h o p e f o r r e d e m p tio n . T h a t is , t h e y a re f a i t h - v i s i o n s i n v o lv in g fu n d a m e n ta l t r u s t .
T h e la n g u a g e o f " t r u s t " is t h e la n g u a g e o f th e o lo g y . T h e r e fo r e we sa y t h a t t h i s e s s a y is th e o lo g ic a l. B u t f a i t h - v i s i o n s a r e a ls o co m m u n al. T h e y a re , as w e in d ic a t e d a b o v e , in c a r n a t e d in t h e c u lt u r a l l i f e o f a p e o p le . H ence th e
p a r t i c u l a r k in d o f s t u d y w e a r e u n d e r t a k i n g — o u r a n g le o f a p p ro a c h to B e c k e r—
m a y b e s ta te d as th e o lo g y o f c u ltu r e .21
S in c e t h i s is s p e c if ic a lly a th e o lo g y o f m o d e rn c u lt u r e , w e m u s t ta k e one m o re s te p b e fo r e e n c o u n t e r in g E r n e s t B e c k e r. B e fo re we p ro c e e d to h is tw o d i f f e r e n t p ic t u r e s , i t w i l l h e lp u s t o " fr a m e " th e m b y t a k in g n o te o f some o f t h e s a lie n t f e a t u r e s o f m o d e r n it y r e le v a n t to t h i s s t u d y . 32
D. THE C U L T U R E OF MODERNITY 1. F ro m D a rk A ge s to E n lig h te n m e n t
T h e u s e o f t h e te r m " m o d e r n " la n d s u s in a d i f f i c u l t y o f d e f in it io n . " M o d e r n "
is c o m m o n ly u s e d in th e s e n s e o f th e " d e v e lo p e d " t h i r d o f th e w o r ld (e g .
" m o d e r n " v s . " p r e - m o d e r n " s o c ie tie s ). " M o d e r n " is a ls o u s e d as th e c u m u la tio n o f t h e h is t o r ic a l p ro c e s s , a s th e h ig h e s t " le v e l" o f c iv il iz a t io n (e g .
" m o d e r n iz a t io n " ) . S om etim es m o d e rn s im p ly m eans " c o n t e m p o r a r y " (as in
" m o d e r n m u s ic " ) .
I n t h e p s y c h e s o f " m o d e r n " p e o p le , t h e r e is a s h a r e d c o n v ic tio n t h a t th e o n e - t h ir d o f th e w o r ld d o m in a te d b y E u ro p e a n m ales is th e h ig h e s t c u lt u r a l
r e a liz a tio n o f h u m a n d o m in io n o v e r n a t u r e . 33 G e n e ra lly s p e a k in g , t h i s " c u lt u r e o f m o d e r n it y " is s a id to h a v e b e e n b ir t h e d in t h e d e c lin e o f th e m id d le a g e s.
W h ile m o d e rn p e o p le s p e a k o f t h i s p re d e c e s s o r p e r io d as " t h e D a rk A g e s " (a n d h e n c e th e " E n lig h t e n m e n t " as i t s s u c c e s s o r) , i t is im p o r t a n t (a n d ir o n ic ) to n o te t h a t t h e g r o p in g f o r m e a n in g is a f e a t u r e o f m o d e r n it y . W hy t h is is so w i l l b eco m e a p p a r e n t b e lo w .
N e v e r th e le s s , " m o d e r n " u s u a lly m eans " a d v a n c e d ." P a r t o f w h a t
c o n s t it u t e d " a d v a n c e m e n t" f o r B e c k e r was th e m o d e rn ’ m a n ’ s ’ s e lf a w a re n e s s o f th e c o n t in g e n t , c o n s t r u c t e d n a t u r e o f a ll s o c ia l s t r u c t u r e s . 34 " I n th e
p e r s p e c t iv e o f h is t o r y , i t seem s in e v it a b le t h a t m an s h o u ld h a v e e n d e d u p b y
’ s e e in g t h r o u g h h im s e lf,’ as i t w e r e . " 35
T h e m e ta p h o r o f " s e e in g t h r o u g h " is t e l li n g . P e r h a p s th e te r m t h a t d e fin e s t h e m o d e rn a g e b e s t is " c r it ic is m . " T h e E n lig h te n m e n t, so B e c k e r t h o u g h t , r e le n t le s s ly s u b je c t e d a ll h u m a n p h e n o m e n a t o c r it ic is m . No lo n g e r a c c e p tin g a n y p a r t i c u l a r s o c ia l s y s te m , t y p e o f g o v e r n m e n t o r w a y o f
c o n s t r u c t in g t h e w o r ld as " t h e t r u e o n e ," m o d e rn s lik e B e c k e r v ie w ’ m a n ’ as,
m o re th a n a n y t h in g e ls e , a " w o r ld - m a k e r " r a t h e r th a n s im p ly a " w o r ld d w e lle r ."
P e r h a p s e v e n m o re r a d ic a lly , h o w e v e r, w as th e id e a c o r r e la t iv e w it h th e c r it ic i s m o f m y th s o f tim e le s s s o c ia l o r d e r : t h a t ’ m a n ’ c o u ld a ls o be a w o r ld
" u n - m a k e r . "
T h e a b i l i t y to ta k e n o te o f th e w a y s o c ie tie s w e re s t r u c t u r e d g iv e s m o d e rn ’ m a n ’ w h a t he t h i n k s to be a n a b i l i t y to s ta n d o u t s id e th e h is t o r ic a l p ro c e s s a n d to s u r v e y i t as " le a d in g u p t o " h is e m e rg e n c e . In d e e d K a n t’ s c a ll to m o d e rn p e o p le to " d a r e to k n o w " ( fr o m h is fa m o u s e s s a y "W h a t is
E n lig h t e n m e n t ? " ) 36 im p lie d t h a t , t o t h a t p o in t, p e o p le h a d n o t " d a r e d to k n o w "
b u t r a t h e r had ta k e n th e e a s y w a y o u t b y b e lie v in g s u p e r s t it io n s . T h e
d if f e r e n c e b e tw e e n th e E n lig h te n m e n t a n d th e p r e - E n lig h t e n m e n t p e rs o n was n o t o f d e g re e b u t o f k in d .
T h e E n lig h te n m e n t is , f o r m o d e rn s , a w a te r s h e d . I t f u n c t io n s in a w a y s im ila r to th e E x o d u s in J u d a is m a n d th e C r u c if ix io n in C h r is t ia n it y . In d e e d we h a v e b e e n c o n t in u a lly a s s a u lte d in o u r r e a d in g o f B e c k e r ’ s w o r k s w it h
s ta te m e n ts lik e " t o d a y we k n o w ." " T h e s e c r e t is o u t ! " s a y s B e c k e r th e E n lig h te n m e n t m an. T h e c o r r e la t iv e im p lic a tio n , a t le a s t in B e c k e r ’ s e a r lie r w o r k s , is t h a t "n o w t h a t we k n o w we c a n m a n ip u la te a b e t t e r w o r ld . " A n d a b e t t e r w o r ld m eans a b e t t e r ’ m a n .’
2. T h r e e M o d e rn T h em es
B r ia n W a lsh a n d R ic h a r d M id d le to n c h a r a c t e r iz e m o d e r n it y as t h a t v e n t u r e , . . . s t r e t c h in g fr o m th e R e n a is s a n c e t h r o u g h th e E n lig h te n m e n t to th e p r e s e n t d a y , to c o n t r o l n a t u r e b y m eans o f r a t io n a l a n d te c h n ic a l i n s i g h t a n d t e c h n o lo g ic a l p o w e r f o r h u m a n — p r im a r i ly e c o n o m ic — b e n e f it . T h is p r o je c t o f c o n t r o l a n d p r o g r e s s , w h ic h is b a s ic to w e s te r n s o c ie ty , is ro o te d in a u to n o m y — th e s e c u la r m y th t h a t hum an b e in g s a re s u p re m e in th e w o r ld , t h a t w e a r e t h e s e lf n o rm e d
m a s te rs o f o u r o w n d e s t in y , a n d o f th e d e s t in y o f th e w o r ld . 37
T h r e e m o tifs o f t h e m o d e rn s p i r i t a re p r e s e n t in t h is d e f in it io n . F ir s t , m o d e r n it y is ro o te d in a " s e c u la r m y t h " w h ic h d is p la c e s God in f a v o u r o f
’ m a n ’ . S e c o n d , t h e t h r u s t o f m o d e r n it y is " c o n t r o l o f n a t u r e , " w h ic h im p lie s a c e r t a in v is io n o f th e w a y h u m a n s a n d n o n h u m a n s in t e r a c t , as w e ll as a v ie w o f t h e r e la t io n b e tw e e n b o d y a n d s e lf. T h ir d , th e o u tc o m e o f h u m a n a c t i v i t y is se e n in " p r o g r e s s , " th e id e a t h a t th e E n lig h te n m e n t in a u g u r a te s a s e c u la r iz e d u t o p ia w h e re " s o r r o w a n d m o u r n in g s h a ll fle e a w a y " t h r o u g h h um an r a t io n a l a n d t e c h n ic a l a c t i v i t y . A n d t h i s " u t o p ia " is w h e re th e c o u r s e o f th e w o r ld is
h e a d in g w it h ’ m a n ’ as c a p ta in . E ach o f th e s e is r e p lic a te d in B e c k e r ’ s w r i t i n g s . We n o w e x a m in e th e m in t u r n .
a ) S e c u la r ity : T h e b a n is h m e n t o f God
B y s e c u la r , we d o n o t mean " a t h e is t ic . " B e r n a r d Z y ls t r a is r i g h t w h e n he s a y s t h a t " i t is n o t n e c e s s a ry t o b e a n a th e is t to b e a n a g e n t o f th e s p i r i t o f
m o d e r n it y . ” 38 I t is p o s s ib le , e v e n a c c e p ta b le , f o r m o d e rn s to b e lie v e in God.
H o w e v e r s e c u l a r i t y d oe s m ean a c e r t a in k in d o f God becom es n e c e s s a ry to p o s it, i f a God is to b e p o s ite d a t a ll. T h a t is , a God t h a t a llo w s , e v e n e n c o u ra g e s th e p r o je c t o f h u m a n a u to n o m y .
B y s e c u la r i t y we u n d e r s t a n d th e lo s s o f a God a c t iv e ly in v o lv e d in th e a f f a i r s o f t h e w o r ld . B e c k e r saw t h i s as a c o n s e q u e n c e o f th e r is e o f th e c r i t i c a l h u m a n s c ie n c e s w h ic h r e p la c e d th e t r a d i t i o n a l r o le o f C h r is t ia n it y in d e f in in g t h e w o r ld , a c c o u n tin g f o r e v il a n d e s t a b lis h in g n o rm s . T h is is th e b u r d e n o f b o th T h e S t r u c t u r e o f E v il a n d Be v o n d A lie n a tio n . A n d y e t n e it h e r o f th e s e w o r k s m a ke th e c la im t h a t m o d e rn p e o p le s h o u ld n o lo n g e r b e lie v e in God.
I f G od m ay s t i l l be a f f ir m e d as " e x is t e n t " in some w a y , th e v e r y
p a r t i c u l a r r e v e la t io n o f God in th e w o r ld c la im e d b y a n y r e lig io u s t r a d i t i o n is
e i t h e r d o n e a w a y w it h o r g e n e ra liz e d t o th e p o in t w h e r e i t becom es d e v o id o f re le v a n c e to s h a r e d , p u b lic lif e . M o d e rn s w h o c la im to be b e lie v e r s in God a r e s u b j e c t to a p e c u lia r s p lit b e tw e e n v a lu e a n d f a c t , b e tw e e n p r iv a t e a n d p u b lic w o r ld s , b e tw e e n m e a n in g a n d t r u t h , b e tw e e n p a r t i c u l a r i t y a n d u n i v e r s a l i t y . 39 B e lie f in God m a y b e a c c e p ta b le as a p r iv a t e o p t io n f o r m e a n in g , b u t n o p a r t i c u l a r God ca n be a c c e p te d as u n iv e r s a l n o rm f o r p r iv a t e lif e . One
" c h o o s e s ” o n e ’ s p r iv a t e G od, j u s t as o n e ch o o s e s o n e ’ s " v a lu e s y s te m ."
B u t t h i s s u p p o s e d r e le g a tio n o f r e lig io n does n o t mean a lo s s o f
r e v e la t io n p e r se. R a th e r th e lo c u s o f r e v e la t io n is c h a n g e d t o th e s p h e re o f h u m a n r a t io n a l a c t i v i t y , e s p e c ia lly th e a c t i v i t y o f s c ie n c e . I n th e m o d e rn w o r ld , s c ie n c e becom es t h e le g it im a tin g b a r o f t r u t h . F o r a m o d e rn to c a ll s o m e th in g " s c i e n t if i c " is j u s t a n o t h e r w a y o f s a y in g t h a t i t is " u n d is p u t a b ly t r u e . "
b ) N a tu re a s s ta g e f o r fa u s tia n c o n q u e s t
C o in c id e n t w it h t h i s is a s e c o n d f e a t u r e : th e r e v e la t o r y n a t u r e o f c r e a tio n is lo s t a n d t h e p la c e o f h u m a n s in th e w o r ld b ecom es a m a tte r o f " m a k in g s p a c e "
r a t h e r t h a n f i n d i n g o r a c c e p tin g . N a tu r e is o p p o s e d to ’ m a n ’ s u c h t h a t i t m u s t be " ta m e d " f o r h is b e n e f it ; a n d ’ m a n ’ is s e t o v e r a g a in s t n a t u r e . M e a n in g is n o lo n g e r se e n as a c c e p tin g o n e ’ s p la c e in t h e w o r ld as a g i f t . N a tu r e has
m e a n in g in a s m u c h as h u m a n ity c o n t r o ls i t t h r o u g h t h e e x e r c is e o f r a t io n a l p o w e r s . T h is is a s t r o n g th e m e in B e c k e r ’ s 1968 w o r k T h e S t r u c t u r e o f E v il.
S e c u la r it y a n d th e s e t t in g o f h u m a n a u to n o m o u s fre e d o m o v e r a g a in s t a n a t u r e s t r ip p e d o f s ig n if ic a n c e c o n n e c t in a v ie w o f th e w o r ld a s " t h e a re n a o f m a n ’ s F a u s tia n c o n q u e s t . " 40 B u t we a re s t i l l l e f t w it h t h e s t r a n g e te r m
"h u m a n n a t u r e . " F o r we a r e , u n lik e th e lo w e r a n im a ls , f r e e a n d y e t lik e th e m we a r e " e m b o d ie d .” B e c k e r u n d e r s to o d t h i s p ro b le m w h e n he c la im e d t h a t
h u m a n s lo o k u p a n d see th e s ta r s b e c k o n in g . B u t t h e y a ls o lo o k d o w n a n d see a b o d y w h ic h n e v e r seem s to w a n t to do w h a t t h e y w a n t i t to , a n d t h e y lo o k
a h e a d a n d see d e a th a n d d e c a y as f a t e . 41
C a r r y in g f o r t h th e th e m e o f th e s e t t in g o f a u to n o m y o v e r a g a in s t n a tu r e m eans t h a t h u m a n n a t u r e m u s t be d e fin e d as m a lle a b le a n d o p e n . W h ile we ''h a v e " b o d ie s , w e a lo n e c a n g iv e s ig n ific a n c e to th e m .42 T h is s ig n ific a n c e is a r e - m a k in g , an a t t r i b u t i o n ( o r im p o s itio n ) o f " m e a n in g ." P u t t in g t h in g s in t h i s w a y h o w e v e r o n ly u n d e r s c o r e s f o r m o d e rn ’ m a n ’ w h a t he has lo s t.
c ) P ro g re s s : A s e c u la r u to p ia
T h e t h i r d f e a t u r e is th e s u p p o s e d o u t w o r k in g o f c o n t r o l: p ro g re s s . P ro g r e s s is th e id e a t h a t a s h u m a n s g a in m o re a n d m o re c o n t r o l o v e r n a tu r e (a n d
th e m s e lv e s ), t h e y m ove c lo s e r a n d c lo s e r to t h e d a y w h e n n a t u r e —-and th e lim it s o f t h e b o d y — a re ta m e d a n d u to p ia is a s s u r e d . 43 As Z y ls t r a p u ts it ,
’’ M a n ’ s c r e a t u r e ly f i n i t u d e is e q u a te d w it h h is ’ s i n f u l ’ p re d ic a m e n t, fro m w h ic h h e m u s t b e lib e r a t e d t h r o u g h s e lf - r e d e m p t io n . . . in o r d e r to re g a in p a r a d is e l o s t . " 44 H is t o r y is a s t a g in g o f h u m a n a p o th e o s is .
B e c k e r b e lie v e d t h a t a s c ie n c e o f ’ m a n ’ w h e r e in th e o p e n a n d b e c o m in g n a t u r e o f ’ m a n ’ w a s re v e a le d w a s a k e y f o r t h e im p le m e n ta tio n o f p r o g r e s s . A lt h o u g h t h i s m a y seem to be a lr e a d y a r e la t iv iz a t i o n o f th e id e a o f in e v it a b le p r o g r e s s a s a la w o f h is t o r y , i t is , h o w e v e r, c o m b in e d w it h a s t r o n g f a i t h in th e s u p p o s e d h u m a n a b i l i t y t o im p r o v e i t s e l f t h r o u g h s e lf a w a re n e s s , to o v e rc o m e h is t o r ic a l e v il t h r o u g h u n d e r s t a n d in g a n d to b r i n g in a n e w w o rld w h e r e th e h u m a n s p i r i t w o u ld be th e o b je c t o f w o r s h ip .
3. No M o re U to p ia s
B ob G o u d z w a a rd c la im s t h a t i t is t h i s p r o g r e s s m y th t h a t e m b o d ie s th e d ile m m a s o f m o d e r n it y . 45 F o r w h a t o n c e seem ed lik e an in e v it a b le p u s h t o w a r d s e c u la r u to p ia h a s n o w becom e a d e c lin e to w a r d d e s t r u c t io n . W ith n e g a tiv e p r o g r e s s com es lo s s o f a u to n o m y , o f c o n t r o l a n d o f a v is io n o f " o p e n "
h u m a n n a t u r e . M o re o v e r t h e w o r ld seems h o s tile , n o t a m e n a b le to h u m a n a c t i v i t y . T h e a c c o m p a n y in g s e n se o f d is o r d e r m a ke s u s a lt e r n a t e b e tw e e n
" e s c a p is t " b e lie f in a God t h a t c o u ld c a re le s s a b o u t th e w o r ld (as in
fu n d a m e n ta lis m ) o r a n i h i l i s t i c r e n u n c ia t io n o f b e lie f in G od, in h u m a n ity , in a n y t h in g .
H a v in g ta k e n n o te o f some f e a t u r e s o f m o d e r n ity , w e a r e n o w r e a d y to m ake o u r a p p r o a c h to t h e im a g e s o f ’ m a n ’ p u t f o r t h b y t h a t m o d e rn m an, E r n e s t B e c k e r.
NOTES TO THE INTRO DUC TION
!• S o c ie ty a n d t h e S a c re d . (N ew Y o r k : C ro s s ro a d , 1981), p . x i.
2. H o ly B ib le , R e v is e d S ta n d a r d V e r s io n . ( D iv is io n o f C h r is t ia n E d u c a tio n o f t h e N a tio n a l C o u n c il o f C h u rc h e s o f C h r is t in A m e ric a , 1952).
3. D is a s te r s h a d so m o u n te d b y th e s u m m e r o f 1989 t h a t e n v ir o n m e n t a lis t D a v id S u z u k i in d e s p e r a tio n c la im e d t h a t th e w o r ld h a d te n y e a rs t o r e p e n t o f it s e n v ir o n m e n t a l s in s b e fo re t h e dam age to th e e a r t h w a s i r r e v e r s i b l e . ( " A
P r e v ie w , " A P la n e t f o r th e T a k in g , p ro d u c e d b y D a n ie l Z u k e rm a n , Q T o ro n to : CBC, 1989.)
4 . See J a c k C a h ill, " D a r k V ic t o r y : C a p ita lis m K .O .’ s C o m m unism b u t n o t E v e r y o n e is C h e e r in g ," T o r o n to S t a r . S u n d a y , D e c e m b e r 17, 1989, p. B - l , 4.
H e r e ’ s a s a m p le q u o te : "T h e c a p it a lis t e co n o m ie s a r e p r o d u c in g n a tio n s o f f i n a n c ie r s w h o liv e in m a n s io n s a n d h a m b u r g e r f l i p p e r s w h o c a n ’t a f f o r d an a p a r t m e n t . " ib id , p . B - l .
5. C a p ita lis m a n d P r o g r e s s . T r a n s la te d b y J o s in a V an N u is Z y ls t r a , (T o r o n to a n d G ra n d R a p id s : W edge a n d E e rd m a n s , 1979) p . x iv .
6 . See D o u g la s J o h n H a ll, T h in k in g th e F a it h . (M in n e a p o lis : A u g s b u r g , 1989).
7. G ilk e y , S o c ie ty a n d th e S a c r e d . (N ew Y o r k : C r o s s ro a d , 1981), p. x i a n d R o b e r t H e ilb r o n e r , An I n q u i r y in t o th e H um an P r o s p e c t. U p d a te d a n d r e c o n s id e r e d f o r t h e 1980’ s, (N ew Y o r k : N o r to n , 1980), p . 164.
8 . See W a lte r T r u e t t A n d e rs o n , R e a lity I s n ’ t W hat i t U se d to Be. (S an F r a n c is c o : H a r p e r - C o llin s , 1990).
9. " T h e S e c o n d G re a t S te p in H um an E v o lu t io n , " T h e C h r is t ia n C e n t u r y , J a n u a r y 31, 1968, p p . 135-137.
10. G o u d z w a a rd is a D u tc h C h r is t ia n e c o n o m is t- p h ilo s o p h e r . I n h is C a p ita lis m a n d P r o g r e s s , h e c la im s t h a t n o t o n ly a re we in t h e w e s t c o n f r o n t e d w it h a c l u s t e r o f p ro b le m s , b u t t r a d i t i o n a l w a y s o f s o lv in g th e m a r e im p o te n t a n d lead t o e v e n f u r t h e r p ro b le m s . T h e o n ly w a y t h r o u g h is t o lo o k d e e p ly in t o th e r o o t s o f w e s te r n s o c ie ty a n d t o d is c e r n th e im p e llin g s p i r i t d r i v i n g i t . His a n a ly s is o f th e e c o n o m ic s t r u c t u r e o f th e w e s t o p e n s u p in t o a n a m in g o f t h a t s p i r i t in c a r n a t e in th e s t r u c t u r e o f c a p ita lis m as " p r o g r e s s . " T h is
d e m y th o lo g iz a t io n c a lls th o s e v e r y r o o ts in t o q u e s tio n , a n d t h u s fo llo w s th e m i r r o r im a g e .
11- P l u r a l i t y a n d A m b ig u it y . (S a n F ra n c is c o : H a r p e r a n d Row: 1987), p . 8.
a p p r o p r ia t e as a r e a d in g o f th e p r e s e n t c r is i s in m o d e rn c u lt u r e . I n c id e n t ly , t h e c o n te x t fr o m w h ic h t h i s p h r a s e is ta k e n a c t u a lly e c h o e s m u c h o f w h a t we s h a ll h e a r B e c k e r s a y :
Man d e p e n d s u p o n s y m b o ls a n d s y m b o l s y s te m s w it h a d e p e n d e n c e so g r e a t t h a t as to be d e c is iv e f o r h is c r e a t u r a l v i a b i l i t y a n d , as a r e s u lt , h is s e n s i t i v i t y to e v e n t h e re m o te s t in d ic a t io n t h a t t h e y m ay p r o v e u n a b le t o c o p e w it h o n e o r a n o t h e r a s p e c t o f e x p e rie n c e r a is e s w it h in h im th e g r a v e s t k in d o f a n x ie t y . . .. (" R e lig io n as a C u lt u r a l S y s te m ," in T h e I n t e r p r e t a t io n o f C u lt u r e s , (N ew Y o r k : B a s ic B o o k s , 1973), p . 99.)
In a c h a p t e r e n t it le d " M o d e r n it y in D e c lin e " in h is L a n e d o n G ilk e v : T h e o lo g ia n f o r a C u lt u r e in D e c lin e , (L a n h a m , MD: U n iv e r s it y P re s s o f A m e ric a , 1991)
B r ia n W alsh g iv e s a l i t a n y o f c it a t io n s d e s c r ib in g t h e p r e s e n t c r is is in
m o d e r n it y . T h e r e a d e r w h o is in t e r e s t e d in p u r s u in g f u r t h e r in d ic tm e n ts o f m o d e r n it y s h o u ld t u r n t h e r e .
13. F o o lis h n e s s to t h e G re e k s . (G ra n d R a p id s : E e rd m a n s , 1986), p. 23.
14. B e c k e r w r o te b e fo r e t h e j u s t m o v e m e n t t o in c lu s iv iz e la n g u a g e . I h a v e s t r u g g le d w it h B e c k e r ’ s s e x is t la n g u a g e a n d h a v e d e c id e d t h a t t h e r e a re t h r e e t h i n g s to " d o " w it h i t . ( I s p e a k w it h r e fe r e n c e t o m y d is c u s s io n s o f B e c k e r’ s id e a s ). T h e f i r s t w o u ld b e t o in c lu s iv iz e b y u s in g g e n e r a l a n d n o n s p e c ific te r m s s u c h as " t h e y " o r " h u m a n " o r " t h e i r " ( in p la c e o f " h e , " "m a n ’ s " a n d " h is "
r e s p e c t iv e ly ) . I h a v e r e je c t e d t h i s o p t io n s in c e i t m a ke s la n g u a g e to o c lu m s y . T h e s e c o n d o p t io n w o u ld b e to a lt e r n a t e m a s c u lin e a n d fe m in in e p r o n o u n s w h ile u s in g t h e in c lu s iv e te r m " h u m a n " . T h is m a ke s e x p r e s s io n e a s ie r b u t c re a te s a n o t h e r p ro b le m . B e c k e r u s u a lly g iv e s th e im p r e s s io n t h a t he is t a l k in g a b o u t
" m a n " as " a ll h u m a n c r e a t u r e s . " B u t t h e r e a r e m o m e n ts in h is d is c u s s io n w h e re he s w itc h e s t o a d is c u s s io n o f w om en a s i f th e y w e re e it h e r a n e x c e p tio n , o r a s p e c ia l case. (S ee T h e S t r u c t u r e o f E v i l . (N ew Y o r k : G e o rg e B r a z ille r , 1968), p p . 180-181 a n d D e n ia l o f D e a th . (N ew Y o r k : F re e P re s s , 1973), p p . 3 9 -4 2 , 170.) To a lt e r n a t e g e n d e r p r o n o u n s in m y d is c u s s io n , th e n , w o u ld becom e c o n fu s in g .
T h e t h i r d o p t io n — th e o n e I ’ v e d e c id e d t o t a k e — r is k s a lie n a t in g th e r e a d e r b u t seem s th e m o s t f a i t h f u l t o B e c k e r. T h is o p t io n is t o r e t a in B e c k e r ’ s s e x is t la n g u a g e in ray d is c u s s io n o f h is id e a s , t o s ta te t h a t he is t a l k i n g a b o u t a p a r t i c u la r c o n s t r u c t ( a lt h o u g h h e t h o u g h t i t u n iv e r s a l) c a lle d
" m a n ." W hen I u s e a n id e a o r c o n s t r u c t o f m y o w n , I s h a ll s w itc h to m ore in c lu s iv e la n g u a g e .
15. H a ro ld J a c o b s , " E r n e s t B e c k e r : A R e c o n s id e r a tio n ," H u m a n ity a n d S o c ie ty 5 (1 9 8 1 ), p . 239. S p e a k in g o n b e h a lf o f o t h e r s t u d e n t s w h o o w e d a d e b t to B e c k e r, J a c o b s g o e s o n to s a y t h a t ,
B y s h o w in g u s h o w d e e p ly o u r r o o ts w e re e m b e d d e d in a b r i l l i a n t a n d h u m a n is t ic a lly - o r ie n t e d h is t o r ic a l t r a d i t i o n , he p r o f o u n d ly b o ls te r e d a n d s h a r p e n e d o u r v is io n , p r e v io u s ly s u p p o r t e d o n ly b y o u r m o ra l in t u i t i o n , o f a s o c ia l s c ie n c e c o m m itte d t o m a x im iz in g h u m a n s e lf - p r e s e r v a t io n a n d th e u n f o ld in g o f h u m a n p o t e n t ia l, (p . 241)
16. R e a d in g B e c k e r ’ s d e a th b e d i n t e r v ie w w it h Sam K een le d H a ro ld Ja c o b s to r e m a r k :
T h e B e c k e r o f th e e a r l ie r y e a r s is a lm o s t u n r e c o g n iz a b le . T h e
E n lig h te n m e n t v is io n is d w a r fe d b y a n a ll- p e r v a s iv e s e n se o f d e s p a ir.
