The JIBS Writer
– Version 3.00 –Preface
The JIBS Writer is the English version of the Swedish text Skrivredan. It was conceived as a ‘first aid’ to writing papers in an international milieu – albeit with a Swedish flavour. The JIBS Writer does not cover everything in academic writing and should be supplemented with literature on scientific method and style.
The first version of Skrivredan was written by Maria Agdell and Jan Unenge and was published in Swedish only. The major part of the original text has been retained with extensive additions and alterations. In addition, a short text on the writing process has been added. The reference section is completely revamped to accommodate the guidelines in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (5th
ed.). Notably, the format for internet references seems to have settled after a period of changing pseudo-standards. I want to thank the original writers Maria Agdell and Jan Unenge for generously letting us use the original text as a baseline. The teaching material of Carita Åbom has also been of good help in preparing this primer. Thanks also to Eric Hunter for proofing and to Björn Kjellander for his advice on supplementing literature.
Jönköping, August 2003 Jonas Dahlqvist
What is the JIBS Writer?
The JIBS Writer is an aid for students writing a course report, a thesis or a memo at
university level. Scientific method is not treated explicitly although some parts of the text implicitly deals with methodological issues.
The JIBS Writer consists of:
1. The Writing Section gives general tips and advice on how to write scientific texts.
2. The Report Section contains guidelines for each section in a complete report structure,
from the title page to the appendices. The structure presented is largely universal but probably carries a Swedish flavour.
3. The Citation Section contains rules and guidelines for citing according to the Harvard
system.
4. The Mini Encyclopaedia provides explanations and recommendations for terms and
expressions common in research reports.
The JIBS Writer provides general guidelines for writing a report. When there are special
rules for reports written at JIBS, this is indicated in the text with an arrow ➜.
The JIBS Writer is a simple hypertext with links within the document and to the Internet.
Hyperlinks are blue when the document is browsed on screen. However, they appear in black when the document is printed on a laser printer. With some inkjet printers, the blue-coloured hyperlinks may come out slightly grey if the printer is set for greyscale.
Contents
1 Writing ... 7
1.1 On Writing a Report ...7
1.2 Writing Is Not the Same as Speaking...7
1.3 Logic Precision ...8
1.4 Communicative Precision ...8
1.5 Gender-neutrality and Non-exclusive Language...9
1.6 Writing Aids ... 11
2 Reporting... 14
2.1 Title Page... 14 2.2 Summary... 15 2.3 Table of Contents... 15 2.4 Introduction... 16 2.5 Background ... 16 2.6 Specification of Problem ... 17 2.7 Purpose... 17 2.8 Delimitations... 18 2.9 Method... 19 2.10 Results... 19 2.11 Analysis ... 20 2.12 Conclusions ... 20 2.13 References ... 20 2.14 Suggested Reading... 212.15 Alternative Report Structures... 21
2.16 The Generic Report Structure – Good for Short Reports... 21
2.17 Interleaved Analysis –Using an Interpretative Approach or Presenting Large Amounts of Quantified Data... 21
3 Citing References ... 22
3.1 The Harvard system – The Basics ... 22
3.2 References in the Body Text – In-Text Style... 23
One author...23
Two authors...23
Three or more authors ...23
More than one reference from the same author(s) the same year...23
Texts without proper authors...23
Quotations...24
3.3 Reference List... 25
Article in scientific journals ...25
Newspaper article...26
Magazine article...26
Book...26
Edited book, entire book...27
Edited book, single chapter...27
Book, translation...27
Book, reprint...28
Corporate documentation, brochures etc...28
Compendia and other photocopied readings...29
Internet sources...29
Newspaper articles from the Internet...30
Class notes available via Internet/Intranet...30
Secondary sources: citing someone citing ...30
Software...31
3.4 Example of Reference List ... 32
4 Mini Encyclopaedia... 33
abbreviations ...33 abstract...33 acronym ...33 appendix...33 bold style...33 brackets ...33 date...33Ed., Eds., and ed...33
ERIC ...33 et al...34 etc...34 figures...34 ibid. (ibidem)...34 ISBN, ISSN...34 italics...34 level ...34 n.d...34 op. cit...34 p. and pp...35 primary data...35 quote...35 secondary data ...35 sic...35 tables ...35 time...35 underline style ...35
References ... 36
Suggested Reading ... 36
Revision History... 37
Figures Figure 2.1 Example of table of contents and figures. ... 15Read Me First!
Students taking courses at university level should be trained in scientific method. An important part of this training is the documentation and presentation of the students’ own work in writing, be it a simple memo or a thesis.
Traditionally, the scientific method consists of the following three phases.
Phase 1 Choosing an area of inquiry
Reviewing the relevant literature Honing the research question
Phase 2 Choosing an appropriate method
Collecting and processing data or evidence
Phase 3 Presenting, interpreting and discussing the results
This process is reflected in the written report where each phase corresponds to a set of chapters in the report. What the actual headings will be or how many chapters that are needed will vary (as will your mileage). However, it is generally a Good Idea to stick to the logic behind the overall structure.
Not every study is documented in a complete report. Sometimes you may choose a short format such as a memo or a paper. This usually means that the basic structure will be compressed by shortening or even deleting some chapters.
Before we start, a brief explanation of the word ‘scientific’ might be in order. In the JIBS Writer, a scientific report is a text that based on scientific principles. This is not to say that a scientific report is the same as a scholarly article or a research report. Adhering to scientific ideals is to acknowledge openness, truthfulness and appropriate methods of inquiry when addressing a problem. Nothing more, nothing less.
1
Writing
1.1 On Writing a Report
Writing is a creative process. Communication with your reader will take empathy and concentration whether you are writing a novel or a report. One way of categorizing texts is to use literary genres. Each genre has its own set of rules and conventions that a writer needs to absorb in order to work successfully within that genre. Fantasy novels, news wires, travel guides and laws are examples of different literary genres with specific rules for language and structure. The scientific report could be considered a literary genre in its own right. It is the purpose of the JIBS Writer to provide you with the appropriate rules and conventions. One important insight is that literary genres put restrictions on style. This means that a text can still be stylistically inappropriate, even though it has flawless spelling and correct grammar. An important mechanism for learning is feedback. Perfecting your skills in writing a scientific report takes practice and feedback. It is therefore important that you seek feedback from professors and supervisors responsible for grading or supervising your report, PM or thesis. Being an international student in Sweden, you may be accustomed to another framework for arguing or documenting your work. In order to learn the Swedish flavour of report writing, you should insist on getting feedback on your reports. Receiving feedback can be tough on your self-confidence and interpreting the nuances can be tricky in a new culture. However, keep in mind that teachers give you feedback because they really think that you can do better next time.
1.2 Writing Is Not the Same as Speaking
When writing a report you have to keep in mind that the written language is not the same as the spoken language. A verbatim transcription of an everyday conversation makes awkward reading indeed. On the other hand, a written speech tends to be rigid or distant. When text or speech changes medium, it is deprived of the supporting means of communication available in the original medium. Thus, the language has to be adapted to the medium. When writing, you lose many on the means of communication available in an ordinary conversation. On the other hand, you will have another set of tools to use to make up for theses deficiencies.
When talking
• Common frame of reference in time and space.
• Instant feedback – you can detect what needs to be clarified or explained.
• Non-verbal communication – facial expressions, gestures, posture and intonation is used to emphasize and animate.
When writing
• You can think through your wordings carefully.
• The reader can re-read, stop and go back in the text.
• Typographic devices can add emphasis and provide non-verbal information.
• Punctuation – full stop (period), comma and exclamation mark – adds nuance and makes the text clearer.
In the next part of the JIBS Writer we will dwell on a couple of concepts that should accompany you in the writing of your report, PM or thesis.
1.3 Logic Precision
Backman (1998) brings up two linguistic measures of precision that are important to consider when writing a scientific report. These are logic and communicative precision. Logic precision simply means that the different parts of the report should be connected in a logical way and that there is an coherent line of argument. The reader should not be surprised or have to skip forward to understand the arguments made. One of the major reasons for using the structure introduced in the Reporting section is that it provides a good base for logic precision in a scientific report. However, it does not automatically solve all possible problems and there are no simple tricks of the trade to guarantee success. It may be wise to try out the text on a number of selected readers in order to get feedback since it is well-nigh impossible to spot all the logic traps in your own text. Your mind will tend to fill in the blanks. It is also easy to overlook the fact that considerable learning may have taken place while you were writing your report. Lines of argument that seem clear enough when writing up the report may have been a daunting task to comprehend at the beginning of your study. Your own learning has played a trick on you. When selecting reviewers for your text, you need to think about who you are writing for. You should match your reviewers with your prospective readers in order to take full advantage of the feedback.
1.4 Communicative Precision
To communicate means ‘to make common’. The concept of communicative precision refers to the degree of correspondence between the concepts and images that the writer tries to convey and the reflections of these concepts and images in the mind of the reader. The writer and the reader need to agree about the substantial content of the text. Therefore, a report must be written so that misunderstandings are avoided. It is not enough that the reader understands – the reader must not misunderstand. To achieve communicative precision, you must first decide for whom you are writing. Once you have decided who your potential readers are, you can apply a set of strategies and guidelines. Unfortunately, it is easier to think of things you should not do. So without further ado, let us begin with our first ‘Avoid!’
Avoid vague expressions • Enough,
• fair,
• often, and
• very likely
lack precision if they are not qualified by additional pieces of information. Just how likely is something very likely? What is fair? If there is a risk that you and your readers might have different interpretations of a concept or an expression, it is your responsibility as a writer to inform the reader what your think it means. If you by ‘very likely’ mean ‘I think so’ or ‘I estimate’, you should write that. If you can put a figure on the probability that something will happen, please do.
Do not complicated your language without very good reasons
It is tempting to use difficult language and esoteric expressions in an effort to boost your credibility and give a certain weight to your text. However, this will only make your report difficult to read and the communicative precision of your text will suffer (e.g. by using a word such as ‘esoteric’ in the first sentence of this paragraph). You might even intimidate your reader, which is counter to the scientific ideals that should guide your writing efforts. However, sometimes specialist expressions and unusual words are necessary to make yourself understood. This brings us over to the use of specialist language.
Specialist language – pros and cons
Specialist languages are subsets of the general language with a) words that are only used between members of a specific profession, or b) special definitions of words with a general meaning. Specialist expressions such as multilateralism or monopsony are likely to be marked as misspelled if you run a spell check in one of the common word processors. These are examples of the first type (a). To an economist, the expression ‘general equilibrium’ has meanings and implications that go far beyond what can be inferred from a general understanding of the words ‘general’ and ‘equilibrium’, and so pertains to the second category (b). Now, we face two potential problems – the reader might a) not understand at all or b) misinterpret the expression. The only legitimate reason for using specialist language is to enhance the communicative precision between members of the same profession. However, if your text is targeted to a mixed audience you will run into problems that are difficult to solve. Using general language in a specialist context may actually be so detrimental to communicative precision that nothing is won by ‘simplifying’ your text. One solution is to retain those specialist expressions that cannot be replaced while adding an explanation with the first use of each specialist term or expression. This can be done in-text or in a footnote. As you acquire an area of expertise, specialist language will become second nature. In time, it will be difficult to detect jargon in your own texts.
Abbreviations
Abbreviations are related to specialist language. Abbreviations have the potential to enhance the readability of your text. However, this presupposes that the abbreviations used are well known to the reader. If not, the effect might be the reverse. As a rule of thumb, you should avoid abbreviations in the body text of a scientific report, unless they are common and established (such as e.g. or i.e.). Abbreviations for single words such as ‘org.’ for ‘organisation’ should never be used in the body text. If you want to use a special abbreviation to enhance readability, you should first write the expression in full followed by the abbreviation within parentheses. Example: ‘The resource-based view (RBV) of competitive advantage has been under fire lately. Priem and Butler (2001) targeted Jay Barney in their recent critique of RBV research.’ Please remember that abbreviations should be used for the benefit of the reader – not to save keystrokes for the author. Decisions to use abbreviations should consider the communicative precision and readability of the text.
Footnotes
Writers using the Harvard system for citations (of any flavour) should use footnotes exclusively to comment on the text. Footnotes can be used to comment or explain something that is not critical to the understanding of the text but that may be of interest to some readers. They may be used to provide definitions and facts that supplement the text, or they could contain deliberations that stray somewhat from the main issues. The main problem with footnotes is that they break the rhythm of the reading by forcing the reader to look at the bottom of the page and then go back to the main text. You should therefore use footnotes sparingly with the objective to enhance the communicative precision of the text. If the footnote can be integrated into the main text, this is usually a better alternative. If you are citing according to the Harvard system, you should never use a footnote to give a reference.
1.5 Gender-neutrality and Non-exclusive Language
A scientific report should strive for unbiased language. In practice, it is impossible to avoid bias altogether: we all have some view of the world that others may call ‘biased’. However, this does not mean that you should simply let prejudice and exclusive language seep into your report.
Sweden is a relatively homogenous society and does not have the same public agenda for fighting biases and exclusive language as other countries. In Sweden, the dominating issue of linguistic biases is gender and the Swedish version of the JIBS Writer (Skrivredan) contains a primer on how to avoid gender bias (mostly male) in written language; it would be impossible to have it any other way. However, other considerations than sex or gender may be causes for attention to linguistic biases. Disability, sexual orientation, ethnicity or lifestyle decisions may also be grounds for the insidious discrimination of everyday language. The printed APA manual (American Psychological Association [APA], 2001) as well as the APA style website (APA, n.d.) have some recommendations to avoid the most obvious biases from a (mainly) U.S. perspective. However, the social landscape varies from country to country and each has its own agenda for equality that springs from power relations between various social groups. Understanding linguistic biases is therefore a task that needs to be solved from the perspective of a specific country, culture or language. The agenda for equality in Sweden is set by a very different set of social groups than the one in the U.S., in France or in Turkey. Still, thinking out of the box and looking beyond the prejudice of your own culture is actually one of the hallmarks of scientific inquiry and a way to move beyond. As a student at JIBS, you are therefore encouraged to look outside your own culture to get perspective on your own. However, you are also expected to understand something about the cultural setting in which you presently live and study. Gender equality and gender-neutrality are important topics in Swedish education. Therefore, we present some simple pointers on how to avoid obvious gender-bias in your report written in English. Just keep in mind that we will only be scratching the surface and only for some specific cases of English grammar. We therefore encourage you to go explore on your own. A place to begin is the next section ‘Writing aids’.
Most of following ‘solutions’ are taken from the National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) and have actually been around since the seventies (Nation Council of Teachers of English, n.d.). Additional pointers have been taken from Josephson (1999). Some solutions will work better than others in specific situations. It is therefore wise to have several strategies up your sleeve.
Basic problem
How do we avoid gender specific pronouns (in general masculine) in English texts that as aspire to gender neutrality?
Solution 1: Elimination (drop the possessive noun altogether)
‘The entrepreneur should consider more options than borrowing when he/she needs additional funds for expansion.’
can be written
‘The entrepreneur should consider more options than borrowing when in need of additional funds for expansion.’
Solution 2: Pluralizing (his/her ⇒ their)
‘An entrepreneur often worries about his/her sales figures.’ can be written
‘Entrepreneurs often worry about their sales figures.’
Solution 3: Substituting for a third person (rephrasing)
‘When an entrepreneur meets with a potential investor, he/she is putting himself/herself on the spot.’
can be written
Solution 4: Passive voice (‘by’)
‘Every entrepreneur must keep his books according to the law.’ can be written
‘Books have to be kept by the entrepreneur, according to the law.’
Solution 5: Indefinite pronouns – cheating with plural
‘When everyone contributes his/her own ideas, the discussion will be a success.’ can be written
‘When everyone contributes their own ideas, the discussion will be a success’
Here, the indefinite referent is clearly in plural and you may safely use a plural pronoun (their). You may also use this construction even if the indefinite referent is not in plural, e.g. in the song by Sting: ‘If you love someone, set them free.’) This is a common way of relating to an indefinite pronoun (someone, everyone, and anyone) but is not considered ‘correct’ grammar by everyone. To be on the safe side, you may consider rephrasing.
Solution 6: His or her – use both (but sparingly)
‘An entrepreneur sometime has a strong preference to control his/her life.’ can be written
‘An entrepreneur sometime has a strong preference to control his or her life.’
This is cumbersome but it works. You can also use he-she, him-her interchangeably:
‘An entrepreneur may have a strong preference to control his life. The entrepreneur might even suggest that this is the main reason why she wants to work in her own business.’
Solution 7: Overuse the noun
‘The entrepreneur should consider more options than borrowing when he/she needs additional funds for expansion.’
can be written
‘The entrepreneur should consider more options than borrowing when the entrepreneur needs additional funds for expansion.’
This may actually work sometimes but you run the risk of sounding like a five-year-old. See solution 1 on the preceding page for a linguistically more elegant solution.
1.6 Writing Aids
A report should be orthographically and grammatically correct. A text with many misspelled words and awkward grammar is tiring to read and does not inspire confidence. To avoid this, you have a multitude of different aids at your disposal.
Microsoft Word can check your spelling, grammar and style. There are several controls under {Tools ⇒ Spelling and Grammar F7} to tweak these functions to your specific needs. However, spell checks are not perfect and the dictionary included with Word does not contain many of the words used in specialist language. You may therefore have to add these words to you own word list. Do not change a word that you know is correct only because it is marked as misspelled by Word. However, you should be careful when you add words to you own word list. Check and check again to make sure that the words you enter are correct. Otherwise you will make your misspelling permanent.
Below you find a list of references. As a service for those who can speak and write Swedish, or are taking courses in Swedish, we have also listed some useful resources for the Swedish language.
General linguistic aids Swedish
• Svenska språknämnden. (2000). Svenska skrivregler (2nd ed.). Stockholm: Liber.
• Terminologicentrum TNC. (2001). Skrivregler för svenska och engelska från TNC (TNC 100). Solna: TNC.
These are authoritative, clear and succinct guides to correct written Swedish. The book from Svenska språknämnden is very competitively price. The second reference is similar to the first but with the added benefit of a short guide to the English language. Both are written in Swedish for a Swedish audience.
English
• Trask, R.L. (1997). The Penguin Guide to Punctuation. New York: Penguin Books.
• Trask, R.L. (2002). Mind the Gaffe: The Penguin Guide to Common errors in English. London: Penguin Books.
These are two enjoyable guides to English punctuation and usage. They are available as competitively priced paperbacks from Penguin if you want to buy them.
Spelling Swedish
• Svenska akademiens ordlista över svenska språket [Swedish Academy dictionary] (12th ed.). (1998). Stockholm: Norstedts ordbok.
The authoritative dictionary of the Swedish language from the Swedish Academy. Available in all libraries and in most bookshops. Often referred to by its acronym ‘SAOL’.
English
• American heritage dictionary (4th ed.). (2001). New York, NY: Dell Publishing Company.
• Cambridge international dictionary of English. (1995). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Collins COBUILD English dictionary for advanced learners (3rd ed.). (2001). Glasgow: Harper Collins.
• Longman dictionary of American English: Your complete guide to American English (2nd ed.). (1997). White Plains, NY: Longman.
• Longman dictionary of contemporary English (4th ed.). (2003). Harlow: Longman.
• The concise Oxford English dictionary (10th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
These are all widely acclaimed English dictionaries, listed in alphabetical order. Some of them also include primers on correct grammar, usage, and style. As usual, you get what you pay for, but they are all good value. Shop around for an edition that suits your needs. Translation Swedish-English
• Norstedts stora svensk-engelska ordbok (3rd ed.) [Norstedts comprehensive Swedish-English dictionary]. Stockholm : Norstedts ordbok.
Writing Swedish
• Eriksson, L. T. & Wiedersheim-Paul, F. (1999). Att utreda, forska och rapportera (6th edition.) [Investigate, research and report] . Malmö: Liber Ekonomi
Eriksson & Wiedersheim-Paul (1999) has been the recommended course book for the workshop in written and oral presentation. The book gives a fairly good overview of scientific methods in the social sciences but is weak and sometimes even incorrect on reporting and citing. However, it is a good complement to the Swedish version of the JIBS Writer (Skrivredan).
• Backman, J. (1998). Rapporter och uppsatser [Reports and essays]. Lund: Studentlitteratur.
This book by Jarl Backman is what is says it is – a book on how to write reports, papers and essays in the setting of university education. The text is more advanced than the JIBS Writer (Skrivredan).
• Rienecker, L. (1998). Problemformulering. Malmö: Liber.
A small (58 pages) very practical book on how to formulate research problems. Many actual examples and is therefore a good supplement to the Swedish version of the JIBS Writer (Skrivredan).
English
• American Psychological Association. (2001). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (5th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
• Gibaldi, J. (1999). The MLA handbook for writers of research papers. New York: Modern Language Association.
These are two authoritative guides to the style of writing that is particular to the scientific approach to reporting. When citing in a paper written at JIBS, you should use only the rules in the Publication manual of the American Psychological Society.
• Björk, L. & Räisänen, C. (1997). Academic writing – A university writing course. Lund: Studentlitteratur.
Björk and Räisänen have written an extensive guide to academic writing. As such it is somewhat advanced. However, for candidate and master theses, it is a good reference to improve your writing. Areas such as causal analysis and argumentation are well covered and practical examples are provided with step-by-step analysis.
2
Reporting
The section on Reporting contains guidelines for:• Title page • Summary • Table of contents • Introduction • Background • Problem • Purpose • Method • Results • Analysis • Conclusions • References • Appendices
These headings correspond to the different parts in what we may call a complete report structure. Please note that the headings used in this presentation are chosen to reflect the general content under each heading. In an actual report, the headings should reflect the actual content. However, four headings are fixed: Summary, Contents, References and Appendices.
2.1 Title Page
The title page is the first page of a written document. All information necessary to uniquely identify the document should be there. On the title page of project and course reports, it is customary to state the following data:
• Title
• Author
• College or University
• Course
• Month and year
• Instructor or Supervisor
The title of a scientific report should be informative and to the point. Candidate and master theses are often used as sources of information for other theses. All candidate and master theses written at JIBS are indexed and available at the university library. It is therefore important that you choose a title that makes it possible to judge the relevancy of the content based on the title. You will have to fight the urge to come up with a witty title with mysterious connections to the content. The main title should relate to the topic at large while the subtitle may define a specific problem or empirical context.
➜ [In order to avoid misunderstandings, it is generally a good idea to add your
Swedish personal number to your name on course reports (but not on theses). Your teacher may actually require you to do this. Students at JIBS should always use the JIBS templates for Word when writing course reports, memos or theses. For course reports and memos, use the ‘pm english.dot’. For candidate or master theses, use the template ‘Rapport svenska.dot’. To get the templates in
2.2 Summary
A report with more than 10 pages should contain a one-page summary. The heading should be ‘Summary’ and it is placed on a dedicated page immediately before the table of contents. The whole point of a summary is to give the reader a clear idea about the content of the report without actually reading it. A summary is not the same as the blurb on the back of a novel, which tries to whet your appetite for reading without disclosing too much of the plot. A summary should be a succinct transcription of the whole report, that is:
• Problem
• Method
• Results
In a summary, you should put the emphasis on the results. To summarize your findings is an art. You should therefore spend time on your summary since it is probably the only part of your report that the majority of your readership will actually care to read. The summary is an independent text and it should be possible to understand it without first reading the full report. Cut-and-paste summaries rarely work and usually end up lacking coherence and edge.
➜ [Reports written at JIBS should always contain a summary unless the course
instructor explicitly gives you other instructions.]
2.3 Table of Contents
Reports of more than 8 pages should have a table of contents (TOC), which is placed on a separate page immediately after the summary. The heading should be ‘Contents’. The table of contents should contain:
• All numbered headings
• Reference list (not numbered)
• Appendices
• Tables
• Figures
The table of contents should contain page numbers. It may look like this:
Figure 2.1 Example of table of contents and figures.
Content
s
1. Introduction 2. Background 2.1 Short history ... 1 2.2 Previous research ... 2 etc. References...23 AppendicesAppendix 1 Interview guide company A. Tables
Table 1.2 Financial ratios company A and B...11
Figures
Figure 1.1 Stakeholder model ...12 Figure 3.2 Value chain...14
The table of contents has the potential to give a powerful overview of the report. For this to happen, you need to write headings that really inform the reader about the contents. As a writer, it is a good exercise to review your table of contents to get a perspective on your own text. If you, being the writer, find the structure ‘a bit messy’, imagine what your readers would think. The table of contents and the reference list are the first places a seasoned reader looks. Make sure that you seize this opportunity to make a good first impression.
➜ [Always include a table of contents in reports that you write at JIBS. The
proprietary Word templates all have a table of contents inserted at the right place. The table of contents is automatically updated at printout or if you mark the table of contents and press the F9 key. By marking all tables and figures with
the command {Insert ⇒ Reference ⇒ Caption} you can automatically (sort of)
generate tables of tables and figures. The command used to insert tables of
contents in Word is {Insert ⇒ Reference ⇒ Index and Tables} and click on the
appropriate label.]
2.4 Introduction
This section should be no more than a page long and should only give a general introduction to the study and the report. Write a paragraph or two about the topic in general and why you are interested in it. You should also tell the reader about the context in which this report has come into existence, e.g. if it is a course report or if it is a part of a larger research project. When you write a memo or a course report, it does not do the report any good by starting with something like ‘I write this because I have to and it is a compulsory part of my course work’. Instead, think about what is interesting about this topic and why it is important to study. The introduction is an introduction to the specific study or the report, not to the subject itself. Instead, the subject is introduced under the heading ‘Background’.
2.5 Background
In the background section, you will describe your area of study in more depth and give a background to the problem. The objective is to motivate your study by explaining to the reader why the problem you have chosen to study merits our attention. The background should be understood as the ‘background of the problem’. The background section will mainly consist of a literature review in which you describe existing knowledge about your chosen area of inquiry.
Here you may1:
• Review the historical context as well as recent debates related to your problem.
• Present theories and results from previous studies.
• Explain concepts and definitions in the literature that are important to understand in the following parts of the report.
In extensive reports such as bachelor or master theses, the content of the ‘background’ section is often split into two parts. The first part usually reviews existing knowledge and studies in order to motivate the study, while the second presents the theoretical framework used to interpret the data collected for the study. In this case, the first part is left in the original place of the ‘background’ section, while the second part is placed between purpose and method. The logic of this location is that the theories chosen will affect the choice of method, a thus reflects the overall logic in a scientific study. Other arrangements are of course possible as long as they reflect the underlying logic of the study.
1
By referring to arguments and citations from other studies, you can create a new whole by discussing similarities and differences. Focus on making your presentation coherent. The background is not a mere review; it is a creative effort to synthesize previous knowledge into something that motivates the purpose of your study. The background chapter is never neutral to facts since you select what will be in there. This is one argument why you should add your own reflections to this chapter. Readers need to understand need to understand your thinking about your chosen problem. They also need to know how you value previous knowledge on your topic. However, it is very important to delineate your own reflection from the intellectual contributions of other authors. This delineation is effectuated by citing your references. For further information, please refer to chapter 3 Citing References.
If your study is a pure literature study, the background chapter will be more limited. In a literature study, you look for answers to your problem in a review and analysis of previous studies that you find in the literature. This analysis constitutes your results and should therefore be placed in the ‘results’ section. The background chapter in a literature study will instead emphasize historical context and other relevant background information.
In summary, the background chapter is a brief review of ‘what we already know’ about your chosen area of inquiry. Sometimes, it is very effective to use direct quotation, i.e. to present what someone else has written or said, word for word (including misspellings).
Quotations can animate your presentation and are well motivated when:
• you have found a framing of your problem that you find accurate and to the point,
• you have found a definition, a technical term or description that you will use or
• you think the reference gives a short and succinct summary of a lengthy argument. Remember that too much of a good thing might hurt you. Quote sparingly – you are the author. Do not use quotations to ‘spice up’ your text. The question you should ask yourself is: ‘Does this help me to achieve the purpose of this study?’ If not, you should refrain from using the quotation even if it is extraordinarily witty.
2.6 Specification of Problem
The word ‘problem’ has a neutral connotation in research reports and can be something positive or negative. You could say that problem is used instead of the phrase ‘the question in which I am interested’. In extensive reports, you may find a separate heading for the specification of problem. If you write a short report or memo, specifying the problem can usually be fully integrated into the background chapter. When discussing your problem, you take the background chapter as a point of departure to specify your problem. In relation to your problem, you should ask yourself two questions:
• Is this problem interesting?
• Is it possible to answer?
Specifying your problem is intimately linked to the arguments put forward in your background section. Think of it as a summary and conclusion of what you have argued in the background section. When specifying your problem you should be as succinct as you possibly can.
2.7 Purpose
The purpose guides the study and should be formulated in such as way that it takes some kind of analysis to answer it. To craft a purpose is a daunting task even for seasoned researchers. Your purpose will guide your work. It is therefore very important that you carefully formulate the purpose and assess the consequences of the chosen wording.
It is important to understand that a purpose, as we define it here, is not the purpose of the researcher, but of the study. People that are doing studies may have all kinds of personal
purposes for doing a particular study. It could be to satisfy their own curiosity, to gain fame and glory or just to do their job. However, these could never be the purpose of a single study or report. The purpose of a study or report is to tell us how the stated problem will be solved, nothing else. Nevertheless, we can still use phrases such as ‘my purpose’ or ‘our intention’. But keep your personal goals and the purpose of the study separate.
But what is the difference between a problem and a purpose? The most important difference lies in the scope of the concepts: the purpose is more narrowly defined. A problem can be viewed from many different angles and solved in many different ways. However, you cannot do it all in one study. A purpose will tell us how you plan to deal with a problem in one particular study. Eriksson and Wiedersheim-Paul (1999, p. 59) point out that a purpose may convey different objectives.
Descriptive purpose
A descriptive purpose means that we observe, register and document in order to give an account of a process or a situation. This does not mean that you account will be unaffected either by previous theory or your own biases. The choices made by you regarding concepts and theoretical perspectives will contribute to the image you present. To describe implies analytical categories.
Explanatory purpose
In scientific language, the concept of explanation often implies an analysis of cause and effect in order to predict. The choice of theoretical model or perspective will largely decide the range of answers that are possible to give to any particular problem. To give an example, it is equally plausible to explain strategic change as a consequence of external factors as well as purely internal factors such as the top management team or the firm’s resource endowment. The choice will often depend on the interest and knowledge of the individual researcher.
Interpretative purpose
To interpret and understand events, situations or processes can be an important purpose but is hard to define. An important problem for interpretative research is that of meaning in human action. Asking ‘Why?’ also implies the question ‘What is the meaning?’ when we try to understand social action. Sometimes we may even try to gain empathetic understanding, i.e. to understand from the perspective of those people we try to study. Studies that aim towards interpretation are often linked to case studies. This is especially true in studies of processes.
Evaluative purpose
To evaluate is to analyse the effects of an event or a process. This is done by studying the state of things before and after something has occurred. It could be a reorganisation, the introduction of a new accounting system or a new law. An evaluation needs some form of criteria or objectives against which we can evaluate.
2.8 Delimitations
Sometime you may want to delimit the purpose of your study. One reason for this could be a special interest in a particular milieu (rural, urban, small firms), a certain age group or a certain time period. The best way to delimit a purpose is to phrase the purpose in such a way that it does not need extra delimitations. However, if the delimitations need extensive treatment, it may be beneficial to move them to a separate heading ‘Delimitations’, but this should be regarded as the exception. The limited availability of data or time restrictions are not delimitations to the purpose. Rather, they are methodological problems and should be dealt with in that section.
2.9 Method
In the method section, you will describe how you proceeded to achieve your purpose. You should account for:
• data collection,
• data manipulation and analysis, and
• problems and weaknesses of your chosen method.
If you are doing a survey, you should attach the questionnaires (in facsimile) as appendices. If you did a literature study, you should account for the bibliographies and databases that you used as well as search strategies and key words used in your search.
It is important that you motivate and account for your choice of method. Why this particular method? Also tell the reader about practical problems that you ran into during your study. It could be e.g. difficulties in setting up a sampling frame, items that did not work the way you hoped they would, key participants that were unavailable or people that would not let you use your tape recorder during the interviews. You should also discuss how these problems might have affected the results and what you did to reduce the effects. Accounting for methodological problem is important also when doing literature studies. Such account will mostly deal with problems of accessing relevant literature.
Disclosure is one of the fundamental scientific ideals. To reveal things that went wrong is therefore an indispensable part of a scientific report. It also strengthens your readers’ impression of you as an honest and trustworthy individual.
2.10 Results
In this section, you will account for your findings – your empirical results. It is important that you present your findings in a logical and coherent way.
• If you have quantitative data, it is usually a good idea to make efficient use of diagrams and tables.
• If you have qualitative data, such as observations or interviews, you may present them by giving examples. Illustrative and contrasting quotations can be an efficient way to convey information. It also animates the text.
• Comments should generally be limited to clarifications. You should save the final analysis and interpretation of the results to the next sections which contains analysis and conclusions. However, there are important exceptions (see section 2.15).
Don’t call this section ‘Result’. The heading should be informative and tell the readers about the content of this section, whether it is the answers from a survey, personal interviews or company descriptions.
If you made a literature study, the results section should present your review and analysis of the literature you have chosen to study. Be careful to state all your references. Please remember that this section will lay the foundation for the analysis and conclusions sections. It is therefore important to present your results in a way that will tie nicely into your upcoming analytical discussion.
If the quantitative material you present in the results section is very extensive, it may be a good idea to only give an overview and summarize your findings in tables and diagrams. The details can then be deferred to an appendix. Most authors display a tendency to include too much data in their reports. There is a temptation to include general information that may be ‘good to know’. Nevertheless, this is something that will be detrimental to your report. A report should answer a very specific question about the world. Therefore, you should only include information that helps you fulfil the purpose of the report. Focus on the problem!
2.11 Analysis
In this section, you will present your own thoughts on the results. However, this does not mean that anything goes. While, you may structure this section according to your own ideas and needs, it is important that this chapter is logically aligned with your ‘results’ section. Try to conclude your analysis with an overall summary and evaluation of your study. Three questions provide the basis for this evaluation:
• Have I fulfilled my purpose?
• Did I get the answers I expected?
• Has the study raised new questions?
When you report is assessed or graded, it is imperative that you have achieved your purpose. A scientific report, or any report for that matter, is not satisfactory if it does not achieve its purpose. It is as simple as that.
A literature review usually gives rise to some expectations about the results. Do your results correspond to those expectations? If not, you should account for any discrepancies and discuss them.
During a study, new questions may come up. You can make a contribution by stating how you would proceed further with this topic, given what you have learned from the study you have just finished.
Be critical of your results, not of yourself. To point out the shortcomings and errors in your study is an indispensable part of the analysis. How changes would you make if you had to do it all over again? An open discussion of the shortcomings of the study will increase the reader’s confidence in the good parts of the report.
Often, it may be a good idea to move your afterthoughts to a separate section placed after the ‘conclusions’ section. This way, you will emphasize that your reflections on the study is not a part of the report proper, but rather a commentary with critique, afterthought and reflections on “if-I-had-to-do-this-all-over-again-what-would-I-do-differently”.
2.12 Conclusions
A report should contain a section that summarizes the conclusions from the study in relation to the purpose. In this section you will take an overall view of the report based on your stated purpose and give the reader a succinct and parsimonious account of the conclusion you draw based on your study. Take one (1) page as a target for how long this section should be.
Since you are trying to be as clear and brief as possible, some nuances and doubts may disappear along the way; you may seem surer about your conclusions than you really are. Fortunately, there are plenty of opportunities to expression nuances and alternative interpretations in the previous sections ‘results’ and ‘analysis’. In the ‘conclusions’ section, you will have to make up your mind about the most credible interpretation of your data and present it as clearly as possible to the reader. You should consider the fact that many of your actual readers will only look at the summary and the conclusions sections to get a flavour of what your study is about. It is therefore very important to put in some hard work into this section when you state your conclusions. Now that the study is over, what do you have to say about the problem?
2.13 References
All cited references and quotations in the main text should be grouped into a reference list, which is placed after the last chapter but before the appendices. The heading should be ‘References’. You should only include written references that you have actually cited in the main text.
A reference list should contain all the necessary information to make it a reasonable task for the reader to retrieve a cited document. The formatting rules for the reference list may vary, but it should at least be consistent within a single report. The guidelines (actually they are rules) provided in the JIBS Writer are based on the Harvard system which is currently the dominating system in the social sciences. It is also the system used at JIBS with the sole exception of texts written in jurisprudence.
2.14 Suggested Reading
If you want to give other sources that may have helped you during the study but to which you make not explicit reference, you may group them under ‘Suggested reading’. This section should be formatted in the same way as ‘References’. Suggested Reading is not a compulsory part of a report and can frequently be left out.
2.15 Alternative Report Structures
The basic structure presented in this chapter was initially dubbed the complete report structure and is used almost universally for candidate and master theses. However, the substantial content of this structure does not have to be put under separate headings if this is detrimental to the readability of the report. After all, the suggested structure is there to support your presentation, not to get in the way of it!
2.16 The Generic Report Structure – Good for Short Reports
The complete report structure is based on the underlying logic problem – method – results
(cf. phase 1, 2 and 3). This basic structure is also the foundations of what we may call the generic report structure. This can be used to good effect if a report is very short, e.g. a 3-5 pages memo. In this structure, you will present the background and problem under ‘Problem’, continue with ‘Method’ and present your results and analysis under ‘Results’.
2.17 Interleaved Analysis –Using an Interpretative Approach or Presenting
Large Amounts of Quantified Data
The separation of results and analysis into different chapters is particularly ill-suited to some types of studies. This is often the case for studies using an interpretative approach or studies where huge amounts of quantified data are presented and analyzed Therefore, we sometimes need an alternative to the traditional report structure. In studies using an interpretative approach, there simply are no ‘results’ that can be separated from the analysis. One could say that the results emerge through the interpretative work undertaken by the researcher. Let us take interviews as an example since they are a common source of information in course reports. An interview is never presented as an unedited verbatim transcript of the interview session. Instead, the author (researcher) has to give a summarizing account of the content of the interview based on an interpretation of what the interviewee actually meant. The reader can be a part of this interpretation through e.g. quotations but the selection will still be based on the authors initial interpretation of what the interview was about. This means that the results and the analysis (interpretation) have to be interleaved. In this case, the results and the analysis should not be separated in the way it is advocated in the traditional structure.’
Another case where it is not advisable to separate results and analysis are reports that present large amounts of data to the reader, e.g. an extensive survey. If you need to account for a large number of items in a questionnaire, it is usually a good idea to form thematically related sets. You then present your analysis in immediate connection with the results pertaining to each thematic group. This method will increase the readability of the report and the reader can read your analysis while referring to data presented in tables or diagram. A report with some thirty-odd tables in a row is enough to make you cry. If you have large amounts of quantitative data, please consider the interleaved analysis format.
3
Citing References
References perform many important functions in a scientific report, and draw on important scientific ideals such as disclosure and fairness.
• References build your argument. You increase your credibility by referring to existing knowledge.
• References are acknowledgements of previous research efforts. By citing references, you acknowledge the intellectual efforts made by authors that first expressed the ideas on which you base your arguments. Citations separate your own thoughts from those of other authors.
• References position. Your choice of references will tell others about your interest in a topic. Seasoned readers of scientific reports often proceed directly to the reference list in order to form an initial perception of the report and its authors. From the reference list, you may conclude how well the authors have studied the relevant literature and what approach they are using.
The Harvard system is currently the most common system for reference citations in the social sciences. The distinguishing mark of the Harvard system is that the in-text ‘author – year’ format. The Harvard system has many ‘dialects’ that may differ on various details. Most scientific journals therefore provide extensive guidelines for authors concerning the specific format used. The closest substitute to an active standard is the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (a.k.a. the APA manual). It contains guidelines for style, orthography and citations for scientific texts in the social sciences. The APA manual recently came out in its fifth edition and has been published in various forms since 1928. Its influence reaches far beyond the domain of psychology. The JIBS Writer follows the APA guidelines in order to avoid unnecessary aberrations from a well-established standard. Mastering the Harvard system for citations is part of the craft of writing reports and theses at the university level. This means that every full stop, comma, colon and space should be correct. You can give the seasoned reader a good first impression by being thorough in the preparation of your reference list.
3.1 The Harvard system – The Basics
References are listed alphabetically in one single list at the end of the report (but before the appendices). In the body text, a reference item should therefore be formatted so that it identifies the complete bibliographical reference in the references list in a way that is succinct and unambiguous. A citation in the body text should contain the last name of the author(s) and the year of publication in parentheses, separated by a comma and space: (name, year). If an author is mentioned by name in the body text, the year is placed in parentheses immediately after the name separated by space: name (year). These two forms are called the in-text style of citations in the Harvard system. It is important to understand that the term ‘author’ is not limited to individuals. Groups, organizations or firms can all be authors: OECD, Microsoft or the Foreign Ministry can all be considered as authors in certain cases. Please observe that citations should always be placed within the sentence to which they refer. A myth among Swedish students (and even some teachers) says that the citation can be placed after a full stop. This is incorrect. However, it has proved to be a very resilient misconception and you are likely to hear it from someone. If you are prone to being a Besserwisser, here is an excellent opportunity to show off your new skills.
3.2 References in the Body Text – In-Text Style
One author
One important conclusion is that studies of entrepreneurship should focus on factual behaviour, not on psychological traits (Gartner, 1988).
Gartner (1988) draws that conclusion that studies of entrepreneurship had better focus on factual behaviour rather than psychological traits.
Comment
Note the added emphasis on the author in the second example. Please observe that the parentheses are placed before the full stop.
Two authors
Birley and Westhead (1994) point out that earlier studies have come to similar conclusions. Previous studies have come to similar conclusions (Birley & Westhead, 1994).
Comment
The authors’ names are joined by ‘and’ if in the body text and by ‘&’ if in parentheses.
Three or more authors First time a reference is cited:
The relationship between the venture capitalist and the entrepreneur is characterised by asymmetrical information (Amit, Brander & Zott, 2000).
Second citation and onward:
Amit et al. (2000) model this relationship mathematically. Comment:
The first time a reference with three or more authors is mentioned, all authors should be included. For the second citation and onward, include only the first author followed by ‘et al.’. Please note that the full stop should be after ‘al’ and not after ‘et’: ‘et al.’.
More than one reference from the same author(s) the same year.
A typical textbook example of the probit function (Maddala, 1992a) is illustrated by the following situation.
Maddala (1992b) describes the… Comment
When citing multiple documents that has been published the same year by the same author (or group of authors), a letter index (a, b, c …) is added to the year of publication. This is applicable both to the in-text style as well as to entries in the reference list.
Texts without proper authors
The general meaning of the word ‘venture’ is ‘an undertaking under risk’ (Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English, 1974).
Comment
Some references do not have a proper author, not even in the extended meaning. Unsigned newspaper articles, laws, constitutions, encyclopaedias and Holy Scriptures (the Bible; the Koran) are common examples. In these cases, you will use the title instead of the author for the entry in the reference list. Therefore, you will alsouse the title in the in-text citation.
Quotations
‘For the firm, resources and products are two sides of the same coin.’ (Wernerfelt, 1984, p. 171)
Comment
For all quotations, you should provide author, year and page of the citation. You should also add the full bibliographical reference to the reference list.
Conversations, interviews and personal communication
The firm does not have any competitors (W. Gates, personal communication, 2001-10-10). Comment
Conversations, interviews, letters, emails and other personal communication that is cited in the body text should not be entered into the reference list. Therefore, we make the in-text citation more exhaustive. The in-text citation should contain the first name initial and the last name of the communicating person, the words ‘personal communication’ and the date. For formatting, please refer to the example. (The reason we do not enter personal communication into the reference list it that it cannot be checked by the reader.)
3.3 Reference List
A scientific report is immediately followed by a reference list. Use the heading ‘References’. Only references that are cited directly in the main text should be entered into the reference list. Other literature that may have helped you and that you think will be of help to the reader may be listed under a separate heading ‘Suggested Reading’. This is placed after the reference list. You should only list written sources in the reference list.
Note! To make it easy to find an entry, all references are listed in alphabetic order in one
single list. This is important. You should never split up the reference list in sub-categories such as books and articles. Personal communication should never be entered into the reference list.
The reference list is ordered alphabetically according to their in-text entry. This most often means the authors’ last name. Also firms and organisations may be considered as author. Entries without a proper author are listed according to title. In cases where two authors have the same last name, entries will be ordered according first name.
Summing up
• Written references only.
• All references in one single list
• Arrange the references alphabetically by author’s last name. For entries without a proper author: use the title.
• Only list references that are cited directly in the body text.
Article in scientific journals
Generic structure, continuous pagination
Author, A.A., & Author, B.B. (2000). Title of article. Title of journal, Volume, page-page. Generic structure, paginated by issue
Author, A.A., & Author, B.B. (2000). Title of article. Title of journal, Volume(issue), page-page.
Example
Weick, K. E. (1996). The collapse of sensemaking in organizations: the Mann Gulsch disaster. Administrative Science Quarterly, 38, 628-632.
Floyd, S. W., & Woolridge, B. (1999). Knowledge creation and social networks in corporate entrepreneurship: The renewal of organizational capability. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 23(3), 123-144.
Comment
The scientific journal is an important source of research results. Articles appearing in journals have usually passed a peer review and are ‘quality checked’ by respected scholars in the field. There are two ways to paginate in scientific journals: continuous pagination or pagination by issue. Continuous pagination means that each issue starts with the last page number of the last issue plus one. Articles published late in a volume will therefore have very high page numbers. If a journal use continuous pagination (paginates by volume), there is no need to cite the particular issue in which the article was published: the article can be unambiguously located by page number only. However, when a journal is paginated by issue, it is imperative to cite the issue (in parentheses) immediately behind the volume (no separating space). Note! Only the title and volume of the journal should be in italics, not the issue (see example 2). Some journals do not use the traditional numbering of issues. Instead, they may use month or season a base for numbering, such as (October) or (Summer). In these cases, use the numbering used by the journal.
Newspaper article Generic structure
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (2001, November 20). Title of article. Title of newspaper, pp. xx-xx.
Example
Regalado, A. (2001, October 17). Could a skin cell someday replace sperm or egg?. Wall Street Journal, p. B1.
Prosecutorial outrage in Florida [Editorial]. (2002, October 22). New York Times, p. 2. Comment
For articles in daily, weekly and monthly publications, you must give the year and date of publishing (although month is sufficient for monthlies). Note that the in-text reference should only give the year. The title of the newspaper should be in italics but not the title of the article. If an article does not have a named author, you should use the title of the article to index the article. The second example above is an editorial. It is useful to provide information about this since it is not an ordinary news article. The generic form to give this type of meta-information is to place it between brackets […] immediately after the title of the article, e.g. [editorial] or [letter]. In the body text you will sometimes have to use an abbreviated form of the title within quotation marks (if the article does not have a proper author). In the second example above, you may write (‘Prosecutorial outrage’, 2002) for the in-text reference. If the article does not span more one page, the page number is written in the form shown in the examples.
Magazine article Generic structure
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (2001, November 26). Title of article. Title of magazine, volume, pp. xx-xx.
Example
Ripely, A. (2001, November 26). The hunt for the anthrax killers. Time, 158, 48-55. Comment
For dailies and weeklies, you give the year and day of publishing. Note! The in-text reference should only give the year, e.g. Ripley (2001) in the example above. The name and volume should be in italics but not the title of the article.
Book
Generic structure
Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (2000). Title. Location: Publisher. Example
Timmons, J. A. (1999). New venture creation: entrepreneurship for the 21st century (5th ed.). Boston: Irwin/McGraw-Hill.
Olsson, J., & Skärvad, P-H. (1995). Företagsekonomi 99. Malmö: Liber-Hermods. Comment
Comma between authors and last names. Only give the first name initials, each initial followed by a full stop. Give the title in italics. If applicable, give the edition in parentheses, normal style. Edition is abbreviated into ‘ed.’. Please note that you should use only lower-case since ‘Ed.’ stands for ‘editor’. Also firms and organizations can be ‘authors’. The different parts of the reference are separated by full stops.
Edited book, entire book. Generic structure
Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author C. C. (Ed./Eds.). (2000). Title. Location: Publisher. Example
Freeman, R. B., Swedenborg, B., & Topel, R. (Eds.). (1995). NBER-rapporten: Välfärdsstat i omvandling – Amerikanskt perspektiv på den svenska modellen. Stockholm: SNS. Sexton, D. L., & Landström, H. (Eds.). (2000). The Blackwell handbook of entrepreneurship.
Oxford, GB: Blackwell Publishers Ltd. Comment
An edited book or a reader with an editor is indexed by the name(s) of the editors if the edited volume is cited in full. After the name(s) of the editor(s) you should add (Ed.) or (Eds.) depending on whether there is one or several editors. Note the use of caps and lower case.
Edited book, single chapter Generic structure
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (1989). Title of chapter. In A. Editor, B. Editor, & C. Editor (Ed. /Eds.), Title of book (p. xx-xx). Location: Publisher.
Example
Stevenson, H. H., & Sahlman, W. A. (1989). The entrepreneurial process. In P. Burns & J. Dewhurst (Eds.), Small business and entrepreneurship (p. 94-124). Basingstoke: Macmillan Education.
Comment
Only the book title in italics. The name of the editors is preceded by ‘In’. The names of the editors should have their first name initials before their last names. The abbreviation (Ed.) or (Eds.) should be followed by a comma, not a full stop. You must give the pages.
Book, translation Generic structure
Author, A. A. (2000). Titel (A. A. Translator, Trans.). Location: Publisher. (Original
work published1997)
Example
Weber, M. (1963). The sociology of religion (E. Fischoff, Trans.). Boston: Beacon Press. (Original work published 1922)
Comment
The entry in the reference list follows the same structure as for ‘Book’ except for the addition of (1) the name of the translator in parentheses, (2) the abbreviation ‘Trans.’ and (3) the year of publication of the original work. The in-text reference gives the year of publication of the original work and the translation (Weber, 1922/1963). Please note that the first name initial of the translator is given before the last name.
