ASQ Six Sigma

Workshop on Structured Problem

Solving Using DMAIC Methodology

Agenda

 Day 1:  TQM  Introduction to Six Sigma  Define Phase  Project Charter  Day 2:  Seven QC Tools  Process Mapping Day 3: FMEA Process Capability Control Charts Day 4: Lean Enterprise Day 5: VSM Exercise NTPC Case Study Exam & Wrap Up

The Evolution of Quality

• Provides a framework for understanding the history of the quality movement.

• Expands the definition of quality. •

Juran’s Definition of Quality

Defined as “fitness for use” based on:

• Customer’s perceptions of product design. • Degree to which a product conforms to

design.

• Product’s availability, reliability, and maintainability.

ISO Definition of Quality

• Degree to which a set of characteristics fulfills requirements Requiremen ts: Convenienc e and speed

Crosby’s Definition of Quality

• Quality is conformance to requirements. • Requirements are answers to key

organizational questions:

–How quickly will orders ship? –What is our return policy?

–What forms of payment are acceptable?

Quality Evolution: Medieval Guilds

Guilds:

uDeveloped strict rules for

products and services.

uUsed stamps to identify

flawless goods.

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Quality Evolution: Product Orientation

uMaster craftsmen trained

apprentices.

uIndustrial Revolution divided

trades into specialized tasks; inspectors guaranteed quality.

uTaylor system increased

productivity; inspection

departments found defects.

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Quality Evolution: Process Orientation

uProcesses became critical. uShewhart identified statistical

quality control.

uDeveloped strict rules for

products and services.

uQuality became relevant for

process, not just product.

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Quality Evolution: Wartime

uQuality became a safety

issue.

uThe military developed a

sampling inspection system and trained suppliers.

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Quality Evolution: Total Quality Movement

uDeveloped in response to

Japanese quality movement.

uFocused on improving all

processes through people who used them.

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W. Edwards Deming

Quality keys: • Understanding customer needs • Process improvement • Statistical analysis • Expertise of workers • PDCA cycle •

Joseph M. Juran

Quality keys: • Features that satisfy customers • Freedom from deficiencies • Juran Trilogy® – Quality planning – Quality control – Quality improvement

Kaoru Ishikawa

Quality keys:

• Company-wide participation

• Quality control circles • Advanced statistical

methods and tools • Nationwide quality

Armand V. Feigenbaum

Quality keys:

• Total quality control • Integration of quality development, maintenance, and improvement • Focus on internal and external customers •

Genichi Taguchi

Quality keys: • Quality should be designed in. • Quality should minimize deviations from a target. • DOE optimizes performance.

Philip Crosby

Quality keys: • Conformance to requirements • Prevention • Zero Defects • Price of nonconformance •

Total Quality Management

Total quality management (TQM):

• A management approach • Centered on quality

• Based on company-wide participation • Aimed at long-term success

• Through customer satisfaction

3 Cs of TQM

Customer relationships

Continuous improvement

Company-wide participation

1 2 3

Customer Definitions

1

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Levels of Customer Satisfaction

Noriaki Kano identified three

levels:

• Expected quality • Desired quality • Excited quality

Customer Feedback

1

Has two parts:

◆ Efforts to capture what customers say about company’s products/services ◆Efforts to drive

feedback back into organization

Partnering with customer:

◆ Extension of listening

to customer feedback

◆ Most direct route to

PDCA

• A well-known model for continuous process improveme nt is the Plan-Do-Check-Act cycle. 2

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• S t a n d a r d i z e i f d e s i r e d

r e s u l t s a c h i e v e d .

3

Company-Wide Participation

• Leadership must come from management. • All employees must be involved.

• Employee involvement usually requires employees to work in cross-functional teams.

Employee Involvement

 Benefits • Improved productivity and cost reduction • Increased participation and job satisfaction • Opportunities for professional development  Barriers

• “It Won’t Work Here” • Perception of loss of management authority • Employees feeling “used” • “Flavor of the month” 3

Quality Benefits

• Tangible – Increase in earnings – Decrease in waste – Increase in productivity • Intangible – Customer goodwill – Alignment between business activities

W. Edwards Deming on Quality

• Meeting customer needs + wants =

quality.

• Quality improves products/services and

processes.

• Improved products/services and

A Quality Approach Benefits . . .

Employees Organizations

Suppliers _Society

Benefits to Employees

Greater job

security/benefits

Pride in products and services Job satisfaction Improved communications Streamlined work processes Happier customers Strong customer relationships

Benefits to Organizations

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r g a n i z a t i o n s

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Quality Studies and Standards

Released the Profit Impact of Market

Strategy (PIMS) study.

Partnered with the Baldrige recognition program.

Both organizations support the link between quality and profitability.

External and Internal Customers

Publication

Benefits to Customers

Quality results in:

• Increased choices. • Improved goods

and services.

• Expectations met or exceeded.

Benefits to Suppliers

• Achievement of performance requirements • Streamlined processes

• Efficient communication

Benefits to Society

Economic growth and stability

Increased employment opportunities

Process Management

Quality improvements are applied to single processes within manufacturing.

Quality improvements are applied to all organizational activities through process management.

Organizational Process

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What is Lean Six Sigma?

Introduction

• Six Sigma goal is process perfection through defect reduction.

• Lean goal is cycle time reduction through elimination of waste.

“Only those companies that eliminate their defects will have what it takes to win.”

“Breakthrough companies strive for 100 percent DEFECT-FREE products and services.”

Larry Bossidy

CEO of AlliedSignal

What is Six Sigma?

Methodology and Improvement Strategy

• Six Sigma is an overall strategy to accelerate improvements in processes, products, and services–create breakthrough.

• Six Sigma measures how effective strategies are in eliminating defects and variations from processes, products, and services.

= Y + x3 …) x2, + ... + f(x1,

Process output (Y) is a function of (f) the inputs (Xs).

Understanding and controlling this relationship is a major aspect of Six Sigma projects.

Focus on Variation

• Sigma (σ) refers to standard deviation, a measure of process variation (smaller is better).

• Process Sigma is the number of units of standard deviations between the process center and the closest specification limit (larger is better).

• A Six Sigma process has six standard deviations (short term) between the target and the closest specification limit.

6 Sigma Upper Spec Lower Spec 6 Standard Deviations Target Upper Control Lower

Sources of Variation

$

Process Capabil ity Measurem ent System Materi al Desig n

Harvesting the Fruit of Six Sigma

-Sweet Fruit

Sweet Fruit

Design for Manufacturability

Bulk of Fruit

Bulk of Fruit

Process Characterization and Optimization

Low Hanging Fruit

Low Hanging Fruit

Seven Basic Tools

Ground Fruit

Ground Fruit

Logic and Intuition

-3 σ Wall - Demand improvement

3 σ Wall - Demand improvement

4 σ Wall - Must Improve Internally

4 σ Wall - Must Improve Internally

5 σ Wall - Must Address Designs

5 σ Wall - Must Address Designs

The walls crumble faster when working WITH suppliers and

CONCURRENTLY addressing design and process issues

Conti nuou

s data

D is c r e te d a ta

The Focus of Six Sigma

• Y • Dependent • Output • Effect • Symptom • Monitor •_X1 . . . XN •_Independent •_{Input-Process} •_Cause •_Problem •_Control

f (X)

f (X)

Y

_Y

Would you control shooter or target to get the Gold Medal at Olympics

Six Sigma Defines Problems Statistically Y - Outputs uDependent uOutput uEffect uSymptom uAble to Monitor X₁ . . . X_N - Inputs uIndependent uInputs, process uCause uProblem uControllable The product is used to evaluate the process.

Y= f (X)

Should we focus on

the process outputs (Y) or inputs (X)?

The process is used to

control the product.

20,000 lost articles of mail per hour Unsafe drinking water for almost 15 minutes each day

5,000 incorrect surgical operations per week

Two short or long landings at most major airports each day

200,000 wrong drug prescriptions each year

No electricity for almost seven hours each month

Seven articles lost per hour

One unsafe minute every seven months

1.7 incorrect operations per week

One short or long landing every five years

68 wrong prescriptions per year

One hour without electricity every 34 years

99.99966% Good (6 Sigma) 99% Good (3.8 Sigma)

The Define Phase



The define phase module provides an

overview of the following tools:

1.Project selection 2.Project charter

3.Supplier, Input, Output, Customer (SIPOC) diagram

4.Collecting Voice of the Customer (VOC)

Projects Must be …

Meaningful

Meaningful

And

And

Manageable!

Manageable!

Sorting Projects from Messes

• A

mess

is a morass of unsettling

symptoms, causes, data, pressures,

shortfalls, opportunities, etc.

• A

problem

is a well-defined situation that is

capable of resolution

• Identifying a

problem

from within the

mess

is frequently the first step in the process

of project definition

Project Qualifications

• There is a gap between current and

desired performance.

• The cause of the problem is not clearly

understood.

• The solution is not predetermined.

•

Project Selection is Critical

• High leverage projects lead to largest $$ Savings • Large returns justify the investment in time and

effort

• Developing a Lean Six Sigma culture depends upon successful projects having significant business impact

• Black Belt training depends on completion of a meaningful project within ~ 6 months

• Future Projects are frequently identified through initial projects

Lean Six Sigma Project Criteria

• Aligned with business objectives and plans

– Voice of Customer/ Critical to Satisfaction (CTS) – Quality (CTQ) / Cost (CTC) / Delivery (CTD)

• Consistent with principles of Six Sigma – Elimination of process defects

– Reduction of variation

• Concentrates on significant issues/opportunities ... not “problem of the day”

• Justify the investment •

Project Selection

“The best Six Sigma projects begin not inside the business but outside it, focused on the

question — how can we make the customer more competitive? What is critical to the

customer’s success? … One thing we have discovered is that anything we do to make the customer more successful inevitably results in a financial return to us.”

Jack Welch

Address to the General Electric annual meeting April 23, 1997

What is Customer Satisfaction?

• A comparison of expectation to

experience

• A matter of degree

• A result of a good match between

supply and demand

• A predictor of repeat business

•

Y

• Projects are identified by the relationship between

product, service, or deliverable requirements and processes. • The process parameters that affect the requirements

are later identified_(X

1, X2, … Xn)

Customer needs are translated into product, service or deliverable requirements in terms of quality, delivery and cost. The “Y” of Y=f(X).

• Leverage processes are identified.

Breakdown of the processes required to produce the product, service, or deliverable.

Customer Needs Translated into

“Critical To” (CT) Characteristics

Typical Critical to Characteristics CTQ Critical to Quality

CTD Critical to Delivery

S. No.

Criteria Weight

1 Aligned with core objectives ₁₀

2 High probability of success ₁₀

3 Data Availability 8 4 Pain area ₈ 5 Process Improvement ₇ 6 Higher returns ₈ 7 Repeatable ₆ 8 Faster Deployment ₅ 9 Stakeholder Satisfaction ₇ 10 Ease of implementation ₆ Aligned with core objectives High probability of success Data Availability Pain area Process Improvement Higher returns Repeatable Stakeholder Satisfaction Ease of implementation Faster Deployment

Project Selection Criteria

S. No. Criteria Project 1 Project 2 Project 3 Project 4 Project 5

APC Reduction in

stage I Boiler (Stage II) Optimization DM (Stage I) Make up Optimization ESP (Stage I) Inlet Duct Replacement Soot Blowing Sy.Optimization

1 Aligned with core objectives 2 High probability of success 3 Data Availability 4 Pain area 5 Process Improvement 6 Higher returns 7 Repeatable 8 Faster Deployment 9 Stakeholder Satisfaction 10 Ease of implementation

Strong Relationship Moderate Relationship Weak Relationship Project Selection Matrix Diagram

Project Selection Matrix Diagram

1

0 6 3

Factors that Improve Project Success

• Dedicated Black Belt

• Champion phase reviews

• Black Belt has knowledge of

process/product to be improved

• Historic data

• Clearly defined deliverables

• Committed process owners (skin in the

game) with the authority to modify the

process

8

Project Metrics – Success Criteria

Primary Metric

• Used to measure project success

• Consistent with the problem description and objective

• Plotted on a time series graph and shows the goal and actual performance lines

Secondary Metric(s)

• Control unintended negative consequence (assures the Primary Metric is not achieved artificially)

• May be used to measure project progress when the Primary Metric responds slowly

• More than one may be required

• Plotted on a time series graph and shows the goal and actual performance lines

Project Charter



Traditionally created by LSS Champion



Specifies details of a project including:

1.Scope

2.Responsibilities 3.Benefits

4.Schedule

5.Success criteria

A project charter template that may be adopted to fit your organization is: Project Charter Template.

SIPOC

Supplier, Input, Process, Output, Customer diagrams

are used to:

1.Define the scope of the project 2.Identify key stakeholders

3.Gain a “30,000 foot” view of the process targeted by the project

Tips:

1.The SIPOC is the first of several ways the

process will be documented. Therefore, it should be at a relatively high level of

abstraction.

2.It is a good way to assure agreement on the scope of the project.

SIPOC Diagram – Questions to Answer

• Who are the customers of this process? • What are their requirements?

• How are those requirements reflected in the process parameters (output measures)? • What are the process outputs?

• What are the process inputs that cause the outputs?

• What controls are in place for the inputs?

• Who are the suppliers of the material for this process?

Purpose of Various Diagrams / Maps

• SIPOC diagrams provide a “forest view” of the process – maintains focus on the customer’s requirements.

• Value stream “trees level” describes the time, effort, resources, and information used in the process – a frequent source of early wins.

• Lay-out diagram (spaghetti diagram) documents the distance an item travels during its production – illustrates unnecessary movement.

• Process map “ground level” documents the inputs and outputs of each step in the process –

provides the raw material for building a model of the process.

The SIPOC Diagram – The Forest Level

• Start with the end in mind.

• Who are the customers of this process? • What are their requirements?

• How are those requirements reflected in the process parameters (output measures)? • What are the process outputs?

• What are the process inputs that cause the outputs?

• What controls are in place for the inputs?

• Who are the suppliers of the material for this process?

Sample SIPOC

Supplier(s) Inputs/Req'ts Process Output(s)/Req'ts Customer(s)

Grocery store Utility Company Appliance store Coffee machine Measuring cup Electricity Qualified operator Water Filters Cream/milk Sweetener Ground coffee 1800 Specified number of cups No grounds < one hour old Dark Hot Aromatic Fresh Strong Husband Wife Guest Install filter Measure coffee Add coffee Add Water Turn on machine

SIPOC Validation

Review the SIPOC with your: team,

Champion and process owner(s) to assure

agreement on the SIPOC content as well

as the project scope and success criteria

among all stakeholders.

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Suppliers Inputs Process Outputs Customers

Coal Field Rihand Dam Suppliers Power Effluent Process Ash Steam CO2 Internal Internal -Plant Mgmt -Corp Mgmt -Employee External External -Cent.Gov. -Ministry -State Gov. -Shareholders -Contractors -Suppliers -PAPs -Labour Environment Environment CTQs Plant Availability UI Earned Plant Load factor

Maintenance Cost AUXILLIARY POWER -CONSUMPTION Preferred Employer R&R Man : MW Ratio Lead Time Heat Rate Quality System Social Responsibility Manpower Utilization Overhead Expenses ENERGY EFFICIENCY DM Water Used Safety aspect Training of manpower Cycle Time

In process idle stock Air Emission quality Noise level COAL COAL AIR AIR WATER WATER Boiler STEAM STEAM Turbine Generator GRID Coal Water Air Power Manpower Lubricants Maintenance Services Spares and Consumables

Collecting VoC

• Who is a customer?

• What does the customer need?

– Gathering the Voice of the Customer – Define customer requirements

• How do the customers prioritize their needs?

• How are customer needs translated into CTQs?

uGenerally a less intense exercise for DMAIC projects than for

DFSS projects

uMore likely to be based on information that is already

Process

Voice of

Customer Step Step Step

Product/ Service

Customer

Who Is a Customer?

A customer sets/affects requirements for your product or service.

External

Buying customers End-users

Regulatory agencies

A customer is one who receives your output. Internal

Customer Segmentation

•Generally, external customer needs are more important than internal customer needs.

•Are all customers equally important? –External vs. internal –Customer segments •Regions •Type of business •Volumes •Profitability •Strategic market •Future potential •

Voice of the Customer

• The Voice of the Customer (VOC) is the

starting point of any project and data

collection plan.

• The Voice of the Customer includes:

– Expectations – Requirements – Opinions

Questions to Find Voice of the Customer

• What are the elements of your business that are the most critical, from the perspective of your top or best customers? What are their relevant needs?

• What data has been collected to understand the customer requirements?

• How do you operationally define the defect from the perspective of the customer? Under what conditions does it occur?

Voice of the Customer Concerns

• Real vs. stated needs

• Perceived needs

• Intended vs. actual usage

• Internal customers vs. external customers

• Effectiveness vs. efficiency needs

Determining Customer Requirements

• Use verbatim comments from customers to

help determine the key customer

requirements

– We often receive many verbal comments from our customers.

– We need to look for ways to probe for

deeper meaning behind the comments in order to translate these comments into what the customer actually requires.

Tools for Gathering Voice of the Customer

Unsolicited data from customers

– Complaints – Field reports – Trade journals – Benchmarking – Internal research • Requirements documents • Contracts • Customer observation • Be a customer

•

Tools for Gathering VOC

Solicited data from customers

– Interviews

– Focus groups – Surveys

– Informal customer discussions – Market research

Determining Customer Requirements

• Review customer verbatim comments and comparative data

• If possible, probe for deeper understanding • Convert into terms of process performance • Describe the actual customer requirement

– Write the requirement, not the solution – Use measurable terms

– Identify performance targets – Be concise

Define Phase Review

• The purpose of the define phase is to identify and launch a project.

• VOC should be reflected in the project charter especially in the project success criteria.

• The Black Belt and Champion should review and agree on the details of the project charter and SIPOC.

• A common cause of project failure is poorly

defined or projects with excessive scope. This review is an opportunity to mitigate that risk.

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VOC ( Voice of Customer )

Customer NeedCustomer Needs

Aux Power Consumption & Generation Dispatch Environmental Pollution Conservation of Coal

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A

T

?

R an ki ng ( 1 -5 ) Im pr ov e Proc es se s . Ar re st Pr o De vi atio n Be tt er Sy st em s Re pl ac e with . ef f pr o W or se Sa m e B et te r RATING HOW ? Competitor 5 5 4 4 5 5 4 4 4 5 4 2 4 5 4 4 5 5 2 5 81 90 64 66

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Project Charter

Big Y: Reduction in APC of - Stage I units Reduction in APC of - Stage I units

Project Review Dates

Champion: Process Owner: Process Owner: Quality Leader Coach (BB): Green Belt:

Resource Plan General Information

Tollgate Date Signoff

(xx/xx/xx)

Green Belt Contact Information :

Define Measure Analyze Improve Control Mohit Yadav . . Mr S Banerjee . Mr . . P K Mohapatra . Mr N N Mishra. . Iswar BMD Iswar BMD Ashish Jain EMD Ashish Jain EMD . S Sinha TMD. S Sinha TMD . V Agarwal EEMG. V Agarwal EEMG Mohit Yadav 9425823299 1550 Mohit Yadav 9425823299 1550 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Project Team Rhythm and Review Meeting Frequency: Mandatory Attendees: Optional Attendees: 15 Days 15 Days Mohit Yadav

Mohit Yadav _{V. Agarwal} V. Agarwal Iswar Iswar

Mr. P.K.Mohapatra

Mr.

P.K.Mohapatra Mr. N.N.MishraMr. N.N.Mishra Mr. N.K.SinhaMr. N.K.Sinha Mr. S. BanerjeeMr. S. Banerjee

Rhythm and Review: On-Track Off-Track Need Attention 05/02/ 07 05/02/ 07 05/04/ 07 05/04/ 07 15/04/ 07 15/04/ 07 31/05/ 07 31/05/ 07 31/08/ 07 31/08/ 07

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. Mr N K Sinha. . . Mr S Mathew. S. Sinha

VOC

VOC

( Voice of Customer )

➨ Check sheet ➨ Stratification ➨ Pareto diagram ➨ C &E Diagram ➨ Histogram ➨ Scatter diagram

vProblem Solving

v_{Continuous Improvement-- Kaizen}

v_{Dispersion Control-- Six Sigma}

vWaste Elimination--Lean

v_{QMS, EMS, TS 16949, OHSAS-Process}

control, C&P

v_{Supplier Development}

What is their role ?

Tool  Data gathering   Check sheet  Stratification 

Role they Play



Quantify current status or magnitude of the Problem

Facilitate data gathering



Identify and segregate different sources of the problem

• •

 Tool  • Pareto diagram • • Brain storming 

• Cause & effect diagram

 Role they Play



• Prioritize the problem

•

• Generate many ideas for

solving a specific problem

• Identify possible causes of a

problem in a structured way

 Tool   • Histogram

•

• Scatter diagram 

• Graph & chart

 Role they Play



• Study pattern of variation in

a set of data.

• Study relationship between

2 types of variable

• Visual display of data



DATA GATHERING

What is Data ?

Data is a numerical expression of

an activity

Conclusions based on facts and data

are necessary for any improvement.

K. Ishikawa

If you are not able to express a

phenomenon in numbers, you do not

know about it adequately

Types of Data

Quantitative Qualitative

•Measurable e.g. :Length,  Temperature •Countable e.g. :Number of  defects •Subjective assessment e.g. :Score in a  beauty contest

Population Sampl

e Data

Action

Action

X

Population, Sample and Data

Random Sampling

Measurement / Observation

A Saying

qWhen you see the data, doubt it

qWhen you see the measuring instrument, doubt

it.

q_{When you see the chemical analysis, doubt it.}

q_{Three Categories}

q

 1 False Data

 2 Mistaken Data

How to Collect Data?

qDefine the purpose Follow 5W 1H approach ( ).

qDefine the period for data collection.

qDefine the Stratification.

qDesign the check sheet and assess

Measurement

System Capability.

Purpos

e

, , , ,

Be Clear on What Where When Why Who and How the data should be generated



Stratification





v

Method of grouping data by Common



points or characteristics

v

v

A Filtration Process for isolating the



cause of a problem.



v

Prevent mix up and helps in easy &

identification-Basis for Stratification



Workers



Material



Machines



Time



Defect



Environment



Product



Folder



Region



Files



Machine A N = 450 D = 12 P% = 2.7 Machine B N = 450 D = 1118 P% = 26.2 Machine A N = 450 D = 12 P% = 2.7 Machine B N = 450 D = 118 P% = 26.2 COMBINED N = 900 D = 130 P% = 14.4

Blister Defect Pinhole Defect All Defects UCL CL UCL C L UC L CL



Check sheet

 

v

A convenient and compact format



for data collection



v

_{A Simple rule– Maximum}



information with minimum writing



efforts and easy to fill

M/C

No. Comp. DRG. No Token No. Op. Qt. Prod. Material Defect 1 2 3 4 5 6

No.

Insp. M/c Defects A B C D………P Q R

Total Remark

Check Sheet For Machining Operation

Location

Machining Defect Material

Defect

Group Date Shift

1: Blow holes 2: Cracks 3: Hard Metal 4: Eccentric 5: Others 6: Total

A: Dia.+ _{G: Length}+ _{M: Oblong}

B: Dia.- _{H: Length} - _{N: Taper}

C: Ch+ _{I: Sp}+ _{O: Hole Shifted}

D: Ch- _{J: Sp}- _{P: PCDV}

E: CDV+ _{K: D& T Size}+ _{Q: Poor Finish}

Graphs & Charts

vLine chart

v_{Bar chart}

v_{Multiple bar Chart}

vComponent bar Chart v_{Radar chart} v v vPie chart v_{Gantt chart} v_{Pareto diagram} vScatter diagram v_{Control chart} v •

Graphs represent data pictorially. A picture can see what 1000 words can not tell.

Bar Chart

Bar graphs are parallel bars of identical width but differing

length to compare size of different quantities / things.

Line Chart

Line graphs manifest the overall trend in time series data

by direction of their lines.

Pie charts makes it easy to grasp the breakdown of the

components of a quantity over a certain period.

Pie Chart

Comparison of Machines A & B

for weekly Rejection

11 5 10 21 2 3 10 4 3 13 20 14 11 6 8 13 20 15 15 11 0 5 10 15 20 25 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Week Number % R ej ec ti on 2 63 285 201 435 1 33 375 _{321 307} 29 4 348 2 44 336 221 257 2 75 422 281 317 _{29 9} 358 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 W eek Numb er U ni ts P ro du ce d

Comparison of Machines A & B for Units Produced

Multiple bar chart

Component bar chart

Pie Chart for

Customer returned watches

•A – Glass Broken

•B - Stop •C - Mvt. Trouble •D - Defective Dial •E - Regulation •F - Stem Loose •G - Others A 43% B 27% C 12% D 6% E 4% F 3% G 5%

X- Bar and R Chart

25 20 15 10 5 Subgroup 0 2854 2849 2844 S a m p le M e a n Mean=2849 UCL=2853 LCL=2844 15 10 5 0 S a m p le R a ng e R=7.76 UCL=16.41 LCL=0

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Series 1

Radar Chart on ISO 9001-1994 Implementation

Type of work 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Foundation work Frame work Dry-walling Exterior touch up Sheetrock work Plumbing Electrical wiring Fit Fixtures

Paint interior wall Interior touch up Inspection delivery

Gantt Chart for Construction

Activity

Weeks

Gantt Charts makes it easy to understand

the details of a plan and progress in its implementation schedule.

Pareto Diagram

Vital few from Trivial many

41.7 60.7 76.8 87.5 94.6 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 Fish not fresh Vegetable wilted Bread Stale Cashier Rude Meat not Fresh Eggs rotten N o. o f co m pl ai nt s 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 C um P er ce nt ag e Pareto Analysis of Customer Complaints

Pareto Principle

v

80% of problems are caused by less

than 20% of probable causes

v

_{Establishes proof of the need}

PARETO ANALYSIS: Outstanding branch wise

BRANCH BRANCH Rs DUE. RATIO TO

TOTAL CUM. % = .A 5 0 = .B 2 5 =C 10 0. =D 20 0. =E 45 0. = . F 1 5 = . G 1 0 = . H 1 5 .= . Oth 0 5 E D C A B F H G OTHERS . 45 0 . 20 0 . 10 0 . 5 0 . 2 5 . 1 5 . 1 5 . 1 0 . 0 5 . 51 7 . 23 0 . 11 5 . 5 7 . 2 9 . 1 7 . 1 7 . 1 2 . 0 6 . 51 7 . 74 7 . 86 2 . 91 9 . 94 8 . 96 5 . 98 2 . 99 4 . 100 0 . 87 0 TOTAL 87 0. 100 0.

Pareto Analysis on Outstanding

51.7 74.7 86.2 91.9 94.8 96.5 98.2 99.4 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 E D C A B F H G O O ut st an di ng V al ue 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 C um P er ce nt ag e Branches

Pareto Diagram for Production Stoppage

A.M/C quality change B.Intermediate conveyor C.Power failure

D.Hopper/duct line jamming E.Dryer drum coupling pin F.B P full press problem G.Dryer preventive H.Nip roller

I.Rotary comb tripped J.Comber jamming K.Al conveyor idle roller L.Fire

M.Accumulation N.Drum seal changing O.Fan tripping

P.Chain problem Q.Fiber jamming R.Zone gear box S.Zone conveyor 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S N o. o f s to pp ag es 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Cu m ul at iv e %

Pareto Analysis of Complaints at a Laundry

35 60 75 85 93 98 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 Late delivery Missing or wrong items Fading colours

Stains Creased Buttons Missing Stretched or torn N o. o f co m pl ai nt s 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Brain Storming

generating large number of ideas

by a group of people

Basic Rules

v

Defer evaluation

v

Fantasize freely

v

Generate quantity

v

Build on ideas

•

Defer Evaluation

v

_{Put critical faculties in cold storage}

- even constructive criticism.

v

v

_{Ensure a proper climate for acceptance of}

all sorts of ideas.

v

v

_{No idea should be treated as stupid.}

Fantasize Freely

v

Don’t operate with your brakes on.

v

v

Participants are encouraged to generate

ideas, no matter how fanciful they are.

Generate Quantity

v

_{Generate as many ideas as possible.}

v

v

A pearl diver will be more successful in

finding pearls, when he brings up 200

oysters than when he surfaces only

15-20 oysters.

Build on ideas

Idea of one participant is more

effectively built up by another

participant.

Steps in Brainstorming

vSelect the topic

v

vEach member, in rotation gives ideas

v

v_{Member offers only one idea per turn,}

regardless of how many he or she has

v

v_{Continue till all ideas are exhausted}

v

Benefits

vIndividual is limited in generating ideas and group

produces more ideas

v

v_{Ideas are improved upon by members} v

vPresence of others increases creativity v

v_{Pooling of ideas and resources is made possible by}

CAUSE AND EFFECT

DIAGRAM

q

Graphic tool to represent relationship

between an effect and influencing

causes

q

There can not be an effect without a

cause.

q

_{Reduce incidence of subjective}

decision making.

q

Identify main causes X’s influencing Y

Construction of C & E Diagram

vDefine problem

v_{Gather members for discussion}

v_{Conduct Brainstorming}

v_{Group causes into 4M’s}

v_{Man, Material, Machine, Method}

vFor each cause, ask, “What goes wrong

that produces the effect”.

Cause and Effect Diagram for high petrol consumption

High Petrol

Consumptio n

Procedure Driver Vehicle

Materials Maintenanc e Road Restrictions No turn One way Circuitous Road Frequent stops Crossings Traffic Speed Breakers Steep Poor condition Potholes _Irregular servicing False economy Negligence Clogged filters

Low pressureIgnorance Faulty pressure Tyres Petrol Oil Not changed Low level Incorrect viscosity Impurities Incorrect Octane no. Additives Spares Spurious Inferior Impatience Craze Always late Riding on clutch Lack of awareness Poor anticipation Wrong gears Poor skill Wrong culture Bad attitude Inexperience Body Heavy Shape Technical details Carburetor Spark plugs Life Contacts Fuel mix Engine High H.P Cylinders

Cause & Effect Diagram

PROCESS MATERIALS

COOKING QTY OF WOOD QLTY

TIME COOKING WATER (OLD/FRESH) VARIATION TEMP. IN

PENTOSANS IN

FINAL PULP INSTRUMENT

TRAINED UNTRAINED ACCURACY

Uses of C & E Diagram

v

Trace out real root cause

v

v

Help evolve countermeasures

v

v

Making C & E an education in itself

v

v

_{Everyone participating, learn more}

about their work.

v

Is a focus for discussion.

v

v

Shows level of expertise available.

v

HISTOGRAM

3 9 1 2 1 9 2 4 1 7 1 1 6 2 0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0 1 .7 7 6 1 .8 6 8 1 .9 6 2 .0 5 2 2 .1 4 4 2 .2 3 6 2 .3 2 8 2 .4 2 2 .5 1 2 C o n s u m p tio n ( K W h ) Fr eq ue nc y

Histogram

v

Method of analyzing data

v v

v

Data is condensed in a table

v v

v

Tabulation is known as frequency

distribution.

v

v

Presented by a Graph displaying

distribution of data

Histogram



Graph is Characterized by 3 constituents



• centre ( mean)

• width (spread-variation)

• over all shape

v 3 9 1 2 1 9 2 4 1 7 1 1 6 2 0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0 1 .7 7 6 1 .8 6 8 1 .9 6 2 .0 5 2 2 .1 4 4 2 . 2 3 6 2 .3 2 8 2 .4 2 2 .5 1 2 C o n s um p ti o n( K W h) Fr eq ue nc y

Histogram Construction

v

Select a sample of min. 50

v

_{Record the measurements.}

v

_{Determine the range.}

v

Decide the no. of classes.

v

Divide range into no. of classes

v

_{Determine boundary or class limits.}

v

_{Prepare frequency distribution.}

Data on Metal Block thickness (in mm) 3.56 3.46 3.48 3.50 3.42 3.43 3.52 3.49 3.44 3.50 3.48 3.56 3.50 3.52 3.47 3.48 3.46 3.50 3.56 3.38 3.41 3.37 3.47 3.49 3.45 3.44 3.50 3.49 3.46 3.46 3.55 3.52 3.44 3.50 3.45 3.44 3.48 3.46 3.52 3.46 3.48 3.48 3.32 3.40 3.52 3.34 3.46 3.43 3.30 3.46 3.59 3.63 3.59 3.47 3.38 3.52 3.45 3.48 3.31 3.46 3.40 3.54 3.46 3.51 3.48 3.50 3.68 3.60 3.46 3.52 3.48 3.50 3.56 3.50 3.52 3.46 3.48 3.46 3.52 3.56 3.52 3.48 3.46 3.45 3.46 3.54 3.54 3.48 3.49 3.41 3.41 3.45 3.34 3.44 3.47 3.47 3.41 3.38 3.54 3.47

Range= Max. – Min.=3.68-3.30=0.38

No. of classes= 9 Class width= 0.5

N=10 0

Frequency Table

Class no.

Class Boundaries

Mid-value

Frequency

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

3.275 – 3.325

3.325 – 3.375

3.375 – 3.425

3.425 – 3.475

3.475 – 3.525

3.525 – 3.575

3.575 – 3.625

3.625 – 3.675

3.675 – 3.725

3.30

3.35

3.40

3.45

3.50

3.55

3.60

3.65

3.70

3

3

9

33

37

10

3

1

1

Histogram for Metal Block Thickness

3 3 9 33 37 10 3 1 1 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 3.3 3.35 3.4 3.45 3.5 3.55 3.6 3.65 3.7 Thickness (in mm) Fr eq ue nc y

Histogram for Bearing Thickness

5 12 18 29 41 31 22 17 9 3 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 5.24 5.28 5.32 5.36 5.4 5.44 5.48 5.52 5.56 5.6 Thickness (in mm) Fr eq ue nc y

Histogram for Energy Consumption

3 9 12 19 24 17 11 6 2 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 1.776 1.868 1.96 2.052 2.144 2.236 2.328 2.42 2.512 Consumption(KWh) Fr eq ue nc y

Types of Histograms

Bell shaped

Symmetrical shape with a peak in middle

representing a normal histogram

–

3 9 1 2 1 9 2 4 1 7 1 1 6 2 0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0 1 .7 7 6 1 .8 6 8 1 .9 6 2 .0 5 2 2 . 1 4 4 2 . 2 3 6 2 . 3 2 8 2 .4 2 2 .5 1 2 C o n s u m p ti o n ( K W h ) Fre qu en cy

Skewed to Left & Right

Skewed to Left

Caused by centering the process toward high end of the tolerance

Skewed to Right

Caused by centering the process toward low end of the tolerance..

Bimodal & Truncated

Bimodal : Two combined populations-- two shifts, operators, inspectors, suppliers, machine settings, gages, tools, machines, measurement locations, etc.

Truncated: This can happen when a process is not capable of meeting the specifications, parts are sorted from both ends, or too few classes are chosen.

Missing Centre Spike's at Tail (s)

Missing Centre : Centre of the distribution has been sorted from the rest. Portion may have been delivered to a customer with tighter specifications.

Spike's) at the Tail (s) : Parts in outer ends of distribution are probably being reworked to bring characteristic just within specifications.

X_Trans = 1/X_Raw

--The Need for Transformations Prediction from

a ND is possible

… Skew distribution Transformation

Before

Histogram Uses

v

To know--whether variation in data

is due to chance or assignable causes.

v

To tell about Process Behavior

v

--about its capability to produce defect

free output

v

Sources Of Variation

v

_{Common Causes}

---Chance Causes Of Variation

v

_{Special Causes}

Common Cause

v_{Consists of combined effect of several sources of} uncontrollable variation inherent to a process. v_{Collective influence of common cause variation}

defines natural process fluctuation and is known as Chance causes of variation.

v_{Process output is predictable}

v_{Process is said to be in Statistical Control}

v

Special Cause

vVariation has a large impact on performance.

vDetermination of source of impact makes cause

"assignable." and is termed as

assignable cause of variation.

v_{If they exist, process or key characteristic is} said to be "out-of-control".

3 9 1 2 1 9 2 4 1 7 1 1 6 2 0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0 1 . 7 7 6 1 . 8 6 8 1 . 9 6 2 .0 5 2 2 . 1 4 4 2 . 2 3 6 2 . 3 2 8 2 .4 2 2 .5 1 2 C o n s u m p ti o n ( K W h ) Fre qu enc y

Process Behavior

v

_{It tells whether process is under control?}

v

_{Is it producing defect free output?}

v ----process under control or process variability LS L USL Process out Of control USL LSL process variability

Good Process Behavior

v

Shape close to normal curve

v

v

_{Mean at target value}

v

v

Spread within Specification limits

v

v

v

_{Cp is greater than 1.67 and Cpk is}

greater than 1.33

v

What

:

T

o study the possible relationship

between two variables.

Why:

D

iagram make it clear whether a

relationship exists, and shows

the strength of relationship.

When

:

To test a theory that the 2

variables are related.

Examples:

v

_{Cutting speed and tool life}

v

Breakdown and equipment

age

v

_{Temperature & lipstick}

hardness

v

Temperature and percent

foam



in soft drinks

v

Hardness

and

tensile

strength

Scatter Diagram on Conveyor Speed vs. Severed Length 1000 1005 1010 1015 1020 1025 1030 1035 1040 1045 1050 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9

Conveyor Speed (cm/sec)

S ev er ed L en gt h (m m )

Uses:

v

Control Purpose

v

Replacing a destructive test by a

non-destructive test

v

Study of Cause & Effect

relationship

v

Process Optimization

v

•

About This Module…

Process Mapping is a tool used to:

◆Clearly define processes ◆

◆Identify areas where data collection should take

place

◆

◆Visualize activities involved in a process at the

early stages of project development

Six Sigma, A Quest for Process Perfection Attack Variation and Meet Goals

What We Will Learn …

Extending Flow Charts to Process Mapping Extending Flow Charts to Process Mapping

1.The importance of process maps and the character of the product and process parameters.

2.The when, why and where to use process maps. 3.

4.The x’s & y’s and X’s & Y’s and Y=f(x,X). 5.

6.What to measure and control. 7.

8.The need for process maps prior to FMEA’s, Gage Studies, DOE’s and SPC.

9.

10.When the process map is completed. 11.

Process Management

Process Process • People • Equipment • Material • Money • Time Resources A D P C Input Input Output Output Feedback System Basic Process Model

Cycle Time

• Time it takes to complete a process from beginning to end

Question

“How does a reduction

in cycle time benefit an organization?”

A process map will identify opportunities for quality improvements.

A process map will identify opportunities for quality improvements.

Fundamentals of Process Mapping

A process map should describe:

◆Major activities/tasks ◆Sub processes

◆Process boundaries ◆Inputs

◆Outputs

◆Process & Product Parameters ◆Customers & Suppliers

◆Process owners

A process map should describe:

◆Major activities/tasks ◆Sub processes

◆Process boundaries ◆Inputs

◆Outputs

◆Process & Product Parameters ◆Customers & Suppliers

◆Process owners

A process map should be reviewed frequently and is never done.

A process map should be reviewed frequently and is

never done.

A process map should

document how the process actually operates, nothow it is supposed to operate. (“As is,” not “To Be”)

A process map should

document how the process actually operates, nothow it is supposed to operate. (“As is,” not “To Be”)

Principles of Process Management

• Establish ownership.

• Verify and describe the purpose of the process.

• Define the process, boundaries, and interfaces.

• Organize and train the process improvement team.

Principles of Process Management

• Define and document the process. • Define points of control.

• Establish process measurements. • Improve process.

Process Mapping Steps

1.IDENTIFY INPUTS AND OUTPUTS

–Identify Inputs (raw material, equipment, energy, 6M’s, etc.) –Identify Outputs (measurable/assessable end product

parameters) 3.SHOW ALL STEPS

–Value adding steps have the following characteristics:

uSomething the customer would be willing to pay for uTransforms the product or service

uDone right the first time

–Non value-added steps in the process are presented graphically:

uEvaluation points uRework points uScrap points uInventory

Steps (cont.)

3.SHOW OUTPUTS OF EACH STEP

–Show after each process step the characteristics that can impact the following step(s).

u

4.SHOW ALL PROCESS PARAMETERS AT EACH

STEP

–List under each step the parameters that can

change a product characteristic at that step (i.e., parameters that can be controlled at that step).

More Steps

N = Noise Factors - Uncontrollable - May be controllable, but are not controlled by decision.

C = Controllable factors - Process factors that can be

changed to see the effect on product characteristics.

S = Standard Operating Procedures - A procedure is used to

define and run those factors. Tooling, Fixtures. ✔

CR = Critical Factors - Determined through FMEA, DOE, etc.

5.CLASSIFY THE PARAMETERS

–Classify the process parameters identified (in #4 above) into the following categories:

INPUT

S PROCESS OUTPUTS

X’s _Y’s

High Level Process Map

High Level Process Map