MB0050-Research Methodology.pdf

Research Methodology

Contents

Unit 1

An Introduction to Research

1

Unit 2

The Importance of Measurement in Research

13

Unit 3

Selection and Formulation of a

Research Problem

23

Unit 4

Hypothesis

32

Unit 5

Research Design

46

Unit 6

Case Study Method

61

69

Unit 7

Sampling

66

Unit 8

Sources of Data

82

Observation

92

Unit 10

Schedule and Questionnaire

₁₀₁

Unit 11

Interviewing

108

Unit 12

Processing Data

129

Unit 13

Research Report Writing

187

Unit 14

Ethics in Research

198

Acknowledgements, References &

Sikkim Manipal University

Board of Studies

Chairman Mr. Pankaj Khanna

HOD Management & Commerce Director

SMU – DDE HR, Fidelity Mutual Fund

Additional Registrar Mr. Shankar Jagannathan

SMU – DDE Former Group Treasurer

Wipro Technologies Limited

Controller of Examination Mr. Abraham Mathew

SMU – DDE Chief Financial Officer Infosys BPO, Bangalore

Dr. T. V. Narasimha Rao Ms. Sadhna Dash

Adjunct Faculty & Advisor Ex-Senior Manager, HR

SMU – DDE Microsoft India Corporation (Pvt.) Ltd. Prof. K. V. Varambally

Director, Manipal Institute of Management, Manipal

Content Preparation Team Content Modification & Review

Content Writing Vimala Parthasarathy

Prof. Xavier V. K. Assistant Professor

Christ College, Bangalore SMU DDE

Format Editing Language Editing

Ms. Shulagna Sarkar Mr. Radhakrishna Rao

Former Lecturer, Dept. of Lecturer in English Management & Commerce UPMC, Udupi SMU DDE, Manipal

Edition : Spring 2010 Printed : June 2010

This book is a distance education module comprising of written and compiled learning material for our students.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form by any means without permission in writing from Sikkim Manipal University of Health, Medical and Technological Sciences, Gangtok, Sikkim.

Printed and Published on behalf of Sikkim Manipal University of Health, Medical and Technological Sciences, Gangtok, Sikkim by Mr. Rajkumar Mascreen, GM, Manipal Universal Learning Pvt. Ltd., Manipal – 576 104. Printed at Manipal Press Limited, Manipal.

Research simply means a search for facts – answer to questions and solutions to problems. It is a purposive investigation. It is an organized inquiry. It seeks to find explanations to unexplained phenomenon to clarify the doubtful facts and to correct the misconceived facts.

Research is a scientific endeavour. It involves scientific method. “The scientific method is a systematic step-by-step procedure following the logical processes of reasoning”. Scientific method is a means for gaining knowledge of the universe. It does not belong to any particular body of knowledge; it is universal. It does not refer to a field of specific subject of matter, but rather to a procedure or mode of investigation.

Unit 1 : An Introduction to Research

 Meaning of research – Purpose of research

 Types of research

 Significance of research in Social and Business Sciences

Unit 2 : The importance of Measurement in Research

 Definition and Purpose of Measurement

 Levels of Measurement

 Characteristics of Good Measurement

Unit 3 : Selection and Formulation of a Research Problem

 Choosing the problem

 Review of literature

 Formulating the problem

 Criteria of a good research problem

Unit 4 : Hypothesis

 Hypothesis – Meaning and Examples of hypothesis

 Types of hypothesis

 Testing of hypothesis

Unit 5 : Research Design

 Needs of research design

 Components of research design – Different research designs

 Advantages and disadvantages of case study method – Making case study effective

 Case study as a method of business research

Unit 7 : Sampling

 Sampling procedure

 Characteristics of good sample

 Methods of sampling

Unit 8 : Sources of Data

 Primary sources of data

 Methods of collecting primary data

 Secondary sources of data

Unit 9 : Observation

 General characteristics of observation method

 Process of observation

 Use of observation in business research

Unit 10 : Schedules and Questionnaire

 Process of data collection

 Importance of questionnaire

 Distinction between schedules and questionnaire

Unit 11 : Interview

 Types of interviews

 Approach to the interview

 Qualities of interview

 Interview techniques in business research

Unit 12 : Processing Data

 Checking – Editing – Coding

 Transcriptions and Tabulation

 Contents, styles of reporting

 Steps in drafting reports

 Editing the final draft

 Evaluating the final drafts

Unit 14 : Ethics in Research

 Meaning of Research Ethics

 Ethical issues in the overall research process

 Ethical issues in Gaining Access to Participants

 Ethical issues in Data Collection

 Ethical issues related to data analysis and reporting

 Ethically questionable research situations

_________

_________

_________

_________

_________

_________

_________

_________

______

_________

_________

_________

_________

_________

_________

_________

_________

_________

_________

______

Unit 1

An Introduction to Research

Structure:

1.1 Meaning and Definition of Research Objectives

1.1.1 Research and Scientific Method 1.1.2 Characteristics of Research 1.2 Purpose of Research 1.3 Types of Research 1.3.1 Pure Research 1.3.2 Applied Research 1.3.3 Exploratory Research 1.3.4 Descriptive Research 1.3.5 Diagnostic Study 1.3.6 Evaluation Studies 1.3.7 Action Research 1.4 Research Approaches

1.5 Significance of Research in Social and Business Sciences Self Assessment Questions I

1.6 Summary

1.7 Terminal Questions

1.8 Answers to SAQs and TQs

1.1 Meaning and Definition of Research

Research simply means a search for facts – answers to questions and solutions to problems. It is a purposive investigation. It is an organized inquiry. It seeks to find explanations to unexplained phenomenon to clarify the doubtful facts and to correct the misconceived facts.

The search for facts may be made through either:

 Arbitrary (or unscientific) Method: It’s a method of seeking answers to question consists of imagination, opinion, blind belief or impression. E.g. it was believed that the shape of the earth was flat; a big snake swallows sun or moon causing solar or lunar eclipse. It is subjective; the finding will vary from person to person depending on his impression or imagination. It is vague and inaccurate. Or

 Scientific Method: this is a systematic rational approach to seeking facts. It eliminates the drawbacks of the arbitrary method. It is objective, precise and arrives at conclusions on the basis of verifiable evidences. Therefore, search of facts should be made by scientific method rather than by arbitrary method. Then only we may get verifiable and accurate facts. Hence research is a systematic and logical study of an issue or problem or phenomenon through scientific method.

Young defines Research as “a scientific undertaking which, by means of logical and systematic techniques”, aims to:

(a) Discover of new facts or verify and test old facts,

(b) Analyze their sequences, interrelationships and causal explanations, (c) Develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories which would

facilitate reliable and valid study of human behaviour.

(d) Kerlinger defines research as a “systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena”.

Objectives:

After studying this lesson the students should be able to understand:

 Research and scientific method

 Characteristics of Research

 Purpose of research

 Different types of Research

 Research Approaches

 Significance of research in Social and Business Sciences

1.1.1 Research and Scientific Method

Research is a scientific endeavour. It involves scientific method. “The scientific method is a systematic step-by-step procedure following the logical processes of reasoning”. Scientific method is a means for gaining knowledge of the universe. It does not belong to any particular body of knowledge; it is universal. It does not refer to a field of specific subject of matter, but rather to a procedure or mode of investigation.

The scientific method is based on certain “articles of faith.” These are:

 Reliance on Empirical Evidence: Truth is established on the basis of evidence. Conclusion is admitted, only when it is based on evidence. The answer to a question is not decided by intuition or imagination. Relevant data are collected through observation or experimentation. The validity and the reliability of data are checked carefully and the data are analyzed thoroughly, using appropriate methods of analysis.

 Use of Relevant Concepts: We experience a vast number of facts through our sense. Facts are things which actually exist. In order to deal with them, we use concepts with specific meanings. They are symbols representing the meaning that we hold. We use them in our thinking and communication. Otherwise, clarity and correct understanding cannot be achieved.

 Commitment of Objectivity: Objectivity is the hallmark of the scientific method. It means forming judgement upon facts unbiased by personal impressions. The conclusion should not vary from person to person. It should be the same for all persons.

 Ethical Neutrality: Science does not pass normal judgment on facts. It does not say that they are good or bad. According to Schrödinger “Science never imposes anything, science states. Science aims at nothing but making true and adequate statements about its object.”

 Generalization: In formulating a generalization, we should avoid the danger of committing the particularistic fallacy, which arises through an inclination to generalize on insufficient or incomplete and unrelated data. This can be avoided by the accumulation of a large body of data and by the employment of comparisons and control groups.

 Verifiability: The conclusions arrived at by a scientist should be verifiable. He must make known to others how he arrives at his conclusions. He should thus expose his own methods and conclusions to critical scrutiny. When his conclusion is tested by others under the same conditions, then it is accepted as correct.

 Logical reasoning process: The scientific method involves the logical process of reasoning. This reasoning process is used for drawing inference from the finding of a study or for arriving at conclusion.

1.1.2 Characteristics of Research

 It is a systematic and critical investigation into a phenomenon.

 It is a purposive investigation aiming at describing, interpreting and explaining a phenomenon.

 It adopts scientific method.

 It is objective and logical, applying possible test to validate the measuring tools and the conclusions reached.

 It is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence.

 Research is directed towards finding answers to pertinent questions and solutions to problems.

 It emphasizes the development of generalization, principles or theories.

 The purpose of research is not only to arrive at an answer but also to stand up the test of criticism.

1.2 Purpose of Research

The objectives or purposes of research are varied. They are:

 Research extends knowledge of human beings, social life and

environment. The search is for answers for various types of questions: What, Where, When, How and Why of various phenomena, and enlighten us.

 Research brings to light information that might never be discovered fully during the ordinary course of life.

 Research establishes generalizations and general laws and contributes to theory building in various fields of knowledge.

 Research verifies and tests existing facts and theory and these help improving our knowledge and ability to handle situations and events.

 General laws developed through research may enable us to make reliable predictions of events yet to happen.

 Research aims to analyze inter-relationships between variables and to derive causal explanations: and thus enables us to have a better understanding of the world in which we live.

 Applied research aims at finding solutions to problems… socio-economic problems, health problems, human relations problems in organizations and so on.

 Research also aims at developing new tools, concepts and theories for a better study of unknown phenomena.

 Research aids planning and thus contributes to national development.

1.3 Types of Research

Although any typology of research is inevitably arbitrary, Research may be classified crudely according to its major intent or the methods. According to the intent, research may be classified as:

1.3.1 Pure Research

It is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any intention to apply it in practice, e.g., Einstein’s theory of relativity, Newton’s contributions, Galileo’s contribution, etc. It is also known as basic or fundamental research. It is undertaken out of intellectual curiosity or inquisitiveness. It is not necessarily problem-oriented. It aims at extension of knowledge. It may lead to either discovery of a new theory or refinement of an existing theory. It lays foundation for applied research. It offers solutions to many practical problems. It helps to find the critical factors in a practical problem. It develops many alternative solutions and thus enables us to choose the best solution.

1.3.2 Applied Research

It is carried on to find solution to a real-life problem requiring an action or policy decision. It is thus problem-oriented and action-directed. It seeks an immediate and practical result, e.g., marketing research carried on for developing a news market or for studying the post-purchase experience of customers. Though the immediate purpose of an applied research is to find solutions to a practical problem, it may incidentally contribute to the development of theoretical knowledge by leading to the discovery of new facts or testing of theory or o conceptual clarity. It can put theory to the test. It may aid in conceptual clarification. It may integrate previously existing theories.

1.3.3 Exploratory Research

It is also known as formulative research. It is preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem about which the researcher has little or no knowledge. It is ill-structured and much less focused on pre-determined objectives. It usually takes the form of a pilot study. The purpose of this research may be to generate new ideas, or to increase the researcher’s familiarity with the problem or to make a precise formulation of the problem or to gather information for clarifying concepts or to determine whether it is feasible to attempt the study. Katz conceptualizes two levels of exploratory studies. “At the first level is the discovery of the significant variable in the situations; at the second, the discovery of relationships between variables.”

1.3.4 Descriptive Study

It is a fact-finding investigation with adequate interpretation. It is the simplest type of research. It is more specific than an exploratory research. It aims at identifying the various characteristics of a community or institution or problem under study and also aims at a classification of the range of elements comprising the subject matter of study. It contributes to the development of a young science and useful in verifying focal concepts through empirical observation. It can highlight important methodological aspects of data collection and interpretation. The information obtained may be useful for prediction about areas of social life outside the boundaries of the research. They are valuable in providing facts needed for planning social action program.

1.3.5 Diagnostic Study

It is similar to descriptive study but with a different focus. It is directed towards discovering what is happening, why it is happening and what can be done about. It aims at identifying the causes of a problem and the possible solutions for it. It may also be concerned with discovering and testing whether certain variables are associated. This type of research requires prior knowledge of the problem, its thorough formulation, clear-cut definition of the given population, adequate methods for collecting accurate information, precise measurement of variables, statistical analysis and test of significance.

1.3.6 Evaluation Studies

It is a type of applied research. It is made for assessing the effectiveness of social or economic programmes implemented or for assessing the impact of developmental projects on the development of the project area. It is thus directed to assess or appraise the quality and quantity of an activity and its performance, and to specify its attributes and conditions required for its success. It is concerned with causal relationships and is more actively guided by hypothesis. It is concerned also with change over time.

1.3.7 Action Research

It is a type of evaluation study. It is a concurrent evaluation study of an action programme launched for solving a problem for improving an exiting situation. It includes six major steps: diagnosis, sharing of diagnostic information, planning, developing change programme, initiation of organizational change, implementation of participation and communication process, and post experimental evaluation.

According to the methods of study, research may be classified as:

1. Experimental Research: It is designed to asses the effects of particular variables on a phenomenon by keeping the other variables constant or controlled. It aims at determining whether and in what manner variables are related to each other.

2. Analytical Study: It is a system of procedures and techniques of analysis applied to quantitative data. It may consist of a system of mathematical models or statistical techniques applicable to numerical data. Hence it is also known as the Statistical Method. It aims at testing hypothesis and specifying and interpreting relationships.

3. Historical Research: It is a study of past records and other information sources with a view to reconstructing the origin and development of an institution or a movement or a system and discovering the trends in the past. It is descriptive in nature. It is a difficult task; it must often depend upon inference and logical analysis or recorded data and indirect evidences rather than upon direct observation.

4. Survey: It is a fact-finding study. It is a method of research involving collection of data directly from a population or a sample thereof at particular time. Its purpose is to provide information, explain phenomena, to make comparisons and concerned with cause and effect relationships can be useful for making predications

1.4 Research Approaches

There are two main approaches to research, namely quantitative approach and qualitative approach. The quantitative approach involves the collection of quantitative data, which are put to rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid manner. This approach further includes experimental, inferential, and simulation approaches to research. Meanwhile, the qualitative approach uses the method of subjective assessment of opinions, behaviour and attitudes. Research in a situation is a function of the researcher’s impressions and insights. The results generated by this type of research are either in non-quantitative form or in the form which cannot be put to rigorous quantitative analysis. Usually, this approach uses techniques like depth interviews, focus group interviews, and projective techniques.

1.5 Significance of Research in Social and Business Sciences

According to a famous Hudson Maxim, “All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry, and inquiry leads to invention”. It brings out the significance of research, increased amounts of which makes progress possible. Research encourages scientific and inductive thinking, besides promoting the development of logical habits of thinking and organization.

The role of research in applied economics in the context of an economy or business is greatly increasing in modern times. The increasingly complex nature of government and business has raised the use of research in solving operational problems. Research assumes significant role in formulation of economic policy, for both the government and business. It provides the basis for almost all government policies of an economic system. Government budget formulation, for example, depends particularly on the analysis of needs and desires of the people, and the availability of revenues, which requires research. Research helps to formulate alternative policies, in addition to examining the consequences of these alternatives. Thus, research also facilitates the decision making of policy-makers, although in itself it is not a part of research. In the process, research also helps in the proper allocation of a country’s scare resources. Research is also necessary for collecting information on the social and economic structure of an economy to understand the process of change occurring in the country. Collection of statistical information though not a routine task,

involves various research problems. Therefore, large staff of research technicians or experts is engaged by the government these days to undertake this work. Thus, research as a tool of government economic policy formulation involves three distinct stages of operation which are as follows:

 Investigation of economic structure through continual compilation of facts

 Diagnoses of events that are taking place and the analysis of the forces underlying them; and

 The prognosis, i.e., the prediction of future developments

Research also assumes a significant role in solving various operational and planning problems associated with business and industry. In several ways, operations research, market research, and motivational research are vital and their results assist in taking business decisions. Market research is refers to the investigation of the structure and development of a market for the formulation of efficient policies relating to purchases, production and sales. Operational research relates to the application of logical, mathematical, and analytical techniques to find solution to business problems such as cost minimization or profit maximization, or the optimization problems. Motivational research helps to determine why people behave in the manner they do with respect to market characteristics. More specifically, it is concerned with the analyzing the motivations underlying consumer behaviour. All these researches are very useful for business and industry, which are responsible for business decision making.

Research is equally important to social scientist for analyzing social relationships and seeking explanations to various social problems. It gives intellectual satisfaction of knowing things for the sake of knowledge. It also possesses practical utility for the social scientist to gain knowledge so as to be able to do something better or in a more efficient manner. This, research in social sciences is concerned with both knowledge for its own sake, and knowledge for what it can contribute to solve practical problems.

Self Assessment Questions

State whether the following are true or false: 1. Research is a repetitive search.

3. Scientific method is systematic.

4. Objectivity is not required for all types of research. 5. Pure research is not fundamental research.

1.6 Summary

Research simply means a search for facts. The search for facts may be made through either arbitrary (or unscientific) method or scientific method. Young defines Research as “a scientific undertaking which, by means of logical and systematic techniques”, aims to: Discover of new facts or verify and test old facts, analyze their sequences, interrelationships and causal explanations, develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories which would facilitate reliable and valid study of human behaviour. Kerlinger defines research as a “systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena”.

The scientific method is based on certain “articles of faith.” These are: 1. Reliance on empirical evidence:

2. Use of relevant concepts 3. Commitment of objectivity 4. Ethical neutrality

5. Generalization 6. Verifiability

7. Logical reasoning process

Research is directed towards finding answers to pertinent questions and solutions to problems. It emphasizes the development of generalization, principles or theories. The purpose of research is not only to arrive at an answer but also to stand up the test of criticism. The purpose of research is to extend knowledge of human beings Research establishes generalizations and general laws and contributes to theory building in various fields of knowledge. Research verifies and tests existing facts and theory and these help improving our knowledge and ability to handle situations and events. General laws developed through research may enable us to make reliable predictions of events yet to happen. Research aims to analyze inter-relationships between variables and to derive causal explanations: and thus enables us to have a better understanding of the world in which we live.

Applied research aims at finding solutions to problems… socio-economic problems, health problems, human relations problems in organizations and so on. Research also aims at developing new tools, concepts and theories for a better study of unknown phenomena. Research aids planning and thus contributes to national development. Pure Research is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any intention to apply it in practice. Applied Research is carried on to find solution to a real-life problem requiring an action or policy decision. It is thus problem-oriented and action-directed. Exploratory Research is also known as formulative research. It is preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem about which the researcher has little or no knowledge. Descriptive Study is a fact-finding investigation with adequate interpretation. Diagnostic Study is similar to descriptive study but with a different focus. Evaluation Studies is a type of applied research. Action Research is a type of evaluation study. The role of research in applied economics in the context of an economy or business is greatly increasing in modern times. Research also assumes a significant role in solving various operational and planning problems associated with business and industry. Research is equally important to social scientist for analyzing social relationships and seeking explanations to various social problems.

1.7 Terminal Questions

1. Define the following:

i) Scientific Method ii) Research

iii) Applied Research iv) Exploratory Research

v) Descriptive Study vi) Diagnostic Study

vii) Action Research

2. What is the meaning of research?

3. What are the articles of faith in scientific method? 4. What are the features of research?

5 What are the purposes of research? 6 What are the types of research?

1.8 Answers to SAQs and TQs

Unit 2

The Importance of Measurement

in Research

Structure:

2.1 Introduction Objectives

2.2 Definition and Purpose of Measurement 2.3 Levels of Measurement

2.4 Characteristics of Good Measurement 2.4.1 Validity

2.4.2 Reliability 2.5 Summary

2.6 Terminal Questions

2.7 Answers to SAQs and TQs

2.1 Introduction

Research basically deals with the measurement of various variables. While the measurement of variables is an important stage in the research process, it is also a difficult task. This section helps to understand the concept of measurement, the need for measurement, its nature, functions and procedure. The different levels of measurement and the validity and reliability of measuring instruments will also be explained in detail.

Objectives:

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

 Explain what is meant by measurement in research

 Describe the different levels of measurement

 Recognize what makes for good measurement

 Distinguish between the various concepts used to describe good measurement

2.2 Definition and Purpose of Measurement

Different definitions of measurement have been offered by different authors– 1. According to Stevens, measurement is “the assignment of numerals to

A simple example of assignment of numerals according to a rule is described below –

Suppose a survey is conducted to study the applicants of an MBA program and one of the objectives of the study is to find out the sex-wise break-up of applicants. In this case, we may assign the number “0” to male applicants and the number “1” to female applicants. Thus numbers may be used to label individuals, events or things.

2. Campbell defines measurement as “the assignment of numbers to represent properties.”

3. In the words of Torgerson, measurement is “the assignment of numbers to objects to represent amounts or degrees of a property possessed by all of the objects.

In research, it is necessary to distinguish between “objects” and “properties’ or characteristics of these objects. For example, a person is an object and his/her physical characteristics include height, weight, color, etc. while his or her psychological characteristics include intelligence and attitudes. The important point to remember is that the researcher is concerned with measuring properties and not the objects themselves. While physical properties may be directly observed, psychological properties such as intelligence are inferred. For example, a child’s score in an IQ test indicates his or her level of intelligence.

Measurement also has several purposes –

 The researcher constructs theories to explain social and psychological phenomena (e.g. labor unrest, employee satisfaction), which in turn are used to derive hypotheses or assumptions. These hypotheses can be verified statistically only by measuring the variables in the hypotheses.

 Measurement makes the empirical description of social and

psychological phenomena easier.

Example – When conducting a study of a tribal community, measuring devices help the researcher in classifying cultural patterns and behaviors.

 Measurement also makes it possible to quantify variables and use statistical techniques to analyze the data gathered.

 Measurement enables the researcher to classify individuals or objects and to compare them in terms of specific properties or characteristics by measuring the concerned variables.

Examples

Comparison of male and female students’ performance in college exams or of length of stay on the job of older and younger employees.

2.3 Levels of Measurement

Measurement may be classified into four different levels, based on the characteristics of order, distance and origin.

1. Nominal measurement

This level of measurement consists in assigning numerals or symbols to different categories of a variable. The example of male and female applicants to an MBA program mentioned earlier is an example of nominal measurement. The numerals or symbols are just labels and have no quantitative value. The number of cases under each category are counted. Nominal measurement is therefore the simplest level of measurement. It does not have characteristics such as order, distance or arithmetic origin.

2. Ordinal measurement

In this level of measurement, persons or objects are assigned numerals which indicate ranks with respect to one or more properties, either in ascending or descending order.

Example

Individuals may be ranked according to their “socio-economic class”, which is measured by a combination of income, education, occupation and wealth. The individual with the highest score might be assigned rank 1, the next highest rank 2, and so on, or vice versa.

The numbers in this level of measurement indicate only rank order and not equal distance or absolute quantities. This means that the distance between ranks 1 and 2 is not necessarily equal to the distance between ranks 2 and 3.

Ordinal scales may be constructed using rank order, rating and paired comparisons. Variables that lend themselves to ordinal measurement include preferences, ratings of organizations and economic status. Statistical techniques that are commonly used to analyze ordinal scale data are the median and rank order correlation coefficients.

3. Interval measurement

This level of measurement is more powerful than the nominal and ordinal levels of measurement, since it has one additional characteristic – equality of distance. However, it does not have an origin or a true zero. This implies that it is not possible to multiply or divide the numbers on an interval scale.

Example

The Centigrade or Fahrenheit temperature gauge is an example of the interval level of measurement. A temperature of 50 degrees is exactly 10 degrees hotter than 40 degrees and 10 degrees cooler than 60 degrees. Since interval scales are more powerful than nominal or ordinal scales, they also lend themselves to more powerful statistical techniques, such as standard deviation, product moment correlation and “t” tests and “F” tests of significance.

4. Ratio measurement

This is the highest level of measurement and is appropriate when measuring characteristics which have an absolute zero point. This level of measurement has all the three characteristics – order, distance and origin.

Examples

Height, weight, distance and area.

Since there is a natural zero, it is possible to multiply and divide the numbers on a ratio scale. Apart from being able to use all the statistical techniques that are used with the nominal, ordinal and interval scales, techniques like the geometric mean and coefficient of variation may also be used.

The main limitation of ratio measurement is that it cannot be used for characteristics such as leadership quality, happiness, satisfaction and other properties which do not have natural zero points.

The different levels of measurement and their characteristics may be summed up.

In the table below –

Levels of measurement Characteristics

Nominal No order, distance or origin Ordinal Order, but no distance or origin Interval Both order and distance, but no origin Ratio Order, distance and origin

2.4 Characteristics of Good Measurement

A good measurement tool must possess the following characteristics – 1. Unidimensionality – This means that the measurement scale should

not measure more than one characteristic at a time. For example, a scale should measure only length and not both length and temperature at the same time.

2. Linearity – A good measurement scale should follow the straight line model.

3. Validity – This means that a measurement scale should measure what it is supposed to measure.

4. Reliability – This refers to consistency. The measurement scale should give consistent results.

5. Accuracy and Precision – The measurement scale should give an accurate and precise measure of what is being measured.

6. Simplicity – A measurement tool should not be very complicated or elaborate.

7. Practicability – The measurement tool should be easy to understand and administer. There should be proper guidelines regarding its purpose and construction procedure, so that the results of a test can be interpreted easily.

Of the above characteristics, validity and reliability are the most important requirements of a measurement scale and will be explained in more detail.

2.4.1 Validity

A measurement scale may be considered to be valid if it effectively measures a specific property or characteristic that it intends to measure.The question of validity does not arise in the case of measurement of physical

characteristics such as length, weight and height. This is because the measurement is direct and can be done through standard measuring devices. On the other hand, the measurement of abstract characteristics such as motivation and attitudes is more indirect and therefore poses the problem of validity. In such cases, there must be some evidence to prove that the measurement scale actually measures what it is supposed to measure. Such evidence is generally gathered through the application of statistical techniques.

Validity may be classified into different types, as described below. The degree of validity of each type is determined by applying logic, statistical procedures or both.

1. Content validity: This type of validity may be of two types – a) Face

validity and b) Sampling validity. Face validity is determined through a subjective evaluation of a measuring scale. For example, a researcher may develop a scale to measure consumer attitudes towards a brand and pre-test the scale among a few experts. If the experts are satisfied with the scale, the researcher may conclude that the scale has face validity. However, the limitation of this type of validity is that it is determined by opinions, rather than through a statistical method.

Sampling validity refers to how representative the content of the measuring instrument is. In other words, the measuring instrument’s content must be representative of the content universe of the characteristic being measured.

For example, if attitude is the characteristic being measured, its content universe may comprise statements and questions indicating which aspects of attitude need to be measured. In this case, sampling validity will be determined by comparing the items in the measuring instrument with the items in the content universe.

Sampling validity, like face validity, is also based on the judgment and subjective evaluation of both the researcher and outside experts. The determination of the content universe and the selection of the relevant items that are to be included in the measuring scale are both done based on the knowledge and skill of the investigator and other judges.

2. Predictive validity: This type of validity refers to the extent to which one

behavior can be predicted based on another, based on the association between the results yielded by the measuring instrument and the eventual outcome.

Example – In the case of an admission test designed for prospective

MBA students, the predictive validity of the test would be determined by the association between the scores on the test and the grade point average secured by students during the first semester of study. A statistical measure of this association – the correlation coefficient – could be computed to determine the predictive validity of the admission test. Predictive validity would be strong if the coefficient is greater than .50.

One limitation of determining predictive validity using this statistical association is that the eventual outcome, in this case, the grade point average of students during the first semester, may be influenced by other “extraneous” variables or factors. In other words, the grade point average may have been influenced by other factors (e.g. extra training or coaching) and may not necessarily be linked to the score on the admission test. Therefore, predicting behavior from one situation to another is not always accurate.

3. Construct validity: A construct is a conceptual equation that is

developed by the researcher based on theoretical reasoning. Various kinds of relationships may be perceived by the researcher between a variable under study and other variables. These relationships must be tested in order to determine the construct validity of a measuring instrument. The instrument may be considered to have construct validity only if the expected relationships are found to be true.

When determining the validity of a particular measurement instrument, all the three types of validity discussed above should be determined.

2.4.2 Reliability

This refers to the ability of a measuring scale to provide consistent and accurate results. To give a simple example, a weighing machine may be said to be reliable if the same reading is given every time the same object is weighed.

There are two dimensions of reliability – stability and equivalence or non-variability. Stability refers to consistency of results with repeated measurements of the same object, as in the weighing machine example. Non variability refers to consistency at a given point of time among different investigators and samples of items.

The problem of reliability is more likely to arise with measurements in the social sciences than with measurements in the physical sciences, due to factors such as poor memory or recall of respondents, lack of clear instructions given to respondents and irrelevant contents of the measuring instrument.

Reliability can be improved in three ways – 1) By reducing the external sources of variation. This in turn can be achieved by standardizing the conditions under which measurement is carried out, by employing trained investigators and by providing standard instructions. 2) By making the measuring instrument more consistent internally, through an analysis of the different items 3) By adding more number of items to the measuring instrument, in order to increase the probability of more accurate measurement.

The desired level of reliability depends on the research objectives, as well as the homogeneity of the population under study. If precise estimates are required, the higher will be the desired level of accuracy. In the case of a homogeneous population, a lower level of reliability may be sufficient, since there is not much variation in the data.

Reliability and validity are closely interlinked. A measuring instrument that is valid is always reliable, but the reverse is not true. That is, an instrument that is reliable is not always valid. However, an instrument that is not valid may or may not be reliable and an instrument that is not reliable is never valid.

Self Assessment Questions

Are the following statements true or false?

1. Research is concerned with the measurement of objects. 2. A person’s emotions may be directly observed.

4. Linearity means that the measuring scale should not measure more than one characteristic at a time.

5. The problem of extraneous variables arises in the case of construct validity.

6. Validity is determined mainly by predictive validity. 7. Validity and reliability do not always go together.

8. Different research situations require different levels of reliability.

2.4 Summary

Measurement is an important concept in research and is a difficult task. It refers to the assignment of numerals to objects in order to measure the characteristics or properties of objects. Measurement facilitates the verification of hypotheses, helps to quantify variables, makes data suitable for statistical analysis and enables comparison between objects in terms of specific characteristics.

Measurement may be classified into four different levels, based on three characteristics – order, distance and origin. The lowest level of measurement is nominal measurement and involves assigning numerals or labels to different categories of a variable. The next level is ordinal measurement in which objects are rank ordered with respect to a specific characteristic. The interval level of measurement has the characteristics of order, distance and equality of interval but no origin. The highest level of measurement is ratio measurement which is suitable for measuring properties which have an absolute zero point. It permits the use of advanced statistical techniques to analyze the data.

The characteristics of good measurement are uni-dimensionality, linearity, validity, reliability, accuracy, precision, simplicity and practicability.

Validity refers to how effective an instrument is in measuring a property which it intends to measure. There are three types of validity – content validity, predictive validity and construct validity.

Content validity may be of two types – face validity and sampling validity. Face validity is determined by a subjective evaluation of a measuring scale. Sampling validity refers to the extent to which the measuring instrument’s content is representative of the content universe of the characteristic being

measured. The main limitation of content validity is that it is determined in a subjective manner, rather than through a statistical method.

Predictive validity of a measuring instrument refers to the extent to which it may be used to predict a particular behavior, based on another behavior. Construct validity of a measuring instrument is determined by testing the relationships between the variables in the study and other variables.

Reliability of a measuring instrument refers to its ability to provide consistent and accurate results with repeated measurements.

Reliability and validity are closely associated. An instrument that is valid is also reliable, but not vice versa.

2.6 Terminal Questions

1. Differentiate between nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales, with an example of each.

2. What is meant by validity? How does it differ from reliability and what are its types?

3. What are the purposes of measurement in social science research?

2.7 Answers to SAQs and TQs

Unit 3

Selection and Formulation of a

Research Problem

Structure:

3.1 Meaning of Research Problem

Objectives

3.2 Choosing the Problem

3.3 Review of Literature

3.4 Formulating the Problem

3.4.1 Internal Criteria 3.4.2 External Criteria

3.5 Objective of Formulating the Problem

3.6 Techniques involved in Formulating the Problem

3.7 Criteria of Good Research Problem

Self Assessment Questions I

3.8 Summary

3.9 Terminal Questions

3.10 Answers to SAQs and TQs

3.1 Meaning of Research Problem

Research really begins when the researcher experiences some difficulty, i.e., a problem demanding a solution within the subject-are of his discipline. This general area of interest, however, defines only the range of subject-matter within which the researcher would see and pose a specific problem for research. Personal values play an important role in the selection of a topic for research. Social conditions do often shape the preference of investigators in a subtle and imperceptible way.

The formulation of the topic into a research problem is, really speaking the first step in a scientific enquiry. A problem in simple words is some difficulty experienced by the researcher in a theoretical or practical situation. Solving this difficulty is the task of research.

R. L. Ackoffs analysis affords considerable guidance in identifying problem for research. He visualizes five components of a problem.

1) Research-consumer: There must be an individual or a group which experiences some difficulty.

2) Research-consumer’s Objectives: The research-consumer must have available, alternative means for achieving the objectives he desires. 3) Alternative Means to Meet the Objectives: The research-consumer must

have available, alternative means for achieving the objectives he desires.

4) Doubt in Regard to Selection of Alternatives: The existence of alternative courses of action in not enough; in order to experience a problem, the research consumer must have some doubt as to which alternative to select.

5) There must be One or More Environments to which the Difficulty or Problem Pertains: A change in environment may produce or remove a problem. A research-consumer may have doubts as to which will be the most efficient means in one environment but would have no such doubt in another.

Objectives:

After studying this unit you should be able to understand:

 The meaning of Research Problem

 Choosing the problem

 Review of Literature

 Criteria for formulating the problem

 Objective of Formulating the Problem

 Techniques involved in Formulating the Problem

 Criteria of Good Research Problem

3.2 Choosing the Problem

The selection of a problem is the first step in research. The term problem means a question or issue to be examined. The selection of a problem for research is not an easy task; it self is a problem. It is least amenable to formal methodological treatment. Vision, an imaginative insight, plays an important role in this process. One with a critical, curious and imaginative mind and is sensitive to practical problems could easily identify problems for study.

The sources from which one may be able to identify research problems or develop problems awareness are:

 Academic experience

 Daily experience

 Exposure to field situations

 Consultations

 Brain storming

 Research

 Intuition

3.3 Review of Literature

Frequently, an exploratory study is concerned with an area of subject matter in which explicit hypothesis have not yet been formulated. The researcher’s task then is to review the available material with an eye on the possibilities of developing hypothesis from it. In some areas of the subject matter, hypothesis may have been stated by previous research workers. The researcher has to take stock of these various hypotheses with a view to evaluating their usefulness for further research and to consider whether they suggest any new hypothesis. Sociological journals, economic reviews, the bulletin of abstracts of current social sciences research, directory of doctoral dissertation accepted by universities etc afford a rich store of valuable clues. In addition to these general sources, some governmental agencies and voluntary organizations publish listings of summaries of research in their special fields of service. Professional organizations, research groups and voluntary organizations are a constant source of information about unpublished works in their special fields.

3.4 Formulating the Problem

The selection of one appropriate researchable problem out of the identified problems requires evaluation of those alternatives against certain criteria, which may be grouped into:

3.4.1 Internal Criteria

Internal Criteria consists of:

1) Researcher’s interest: The problem should interest the researcher and be a challenge to him. Without interest and curiosity, he may not develop sustained perseverance. Even a small difficulty may become an excuse for discontinuing the study. Interest in a problem depends upon

the researcher’s educational background, experience, outlook and sensitivity.

2) Researcher’s competence: A mere interest in a problem will not do. The researcher must be competent to plan and carry out a study of the problem. He must have the ability to grasp and deal with int. he must possess adequate knowledge of the subject-matter, relevant methodology and statistical procedures.

3) Researcher’s own resource: In the case of a research to be done by a researcher on his won, consideration of his own financial resource is pertinent. If it is beyond his means, he will not be able to complete the work, unless he gets some external financial support. Time resource is more important than finance. Research is a time-consuming process; hence it should be properly utilized.

3.4.2 External Criteria

1) Research-ability of the problem: The problem should be researchable, i.e., amendable for finding answers to the questions involved in it through scientific method. To be researchable a question must be one for which observation or other data collection in the real world can provide the answer.

2) Importance and urgency: Problems requiring investigation are unlimited, but available research efforts are very much limited. Therefore, in selecting problems for research, their relative importance and significance should be considered. An important and urgent problem should be given priority over an unimportant one.

3) Novelty of the problem: The problem must have novelty. There is no use of wasting one’s time and energy on a problem already studied thoroughly by others. This does not mean that replication is always needless. In social sciences in some cases, it is appropriate to replicate (repeat) a study in order to verify the validity of its findings to a different situation.

4) Feasibility: A problem may be a new one and also important, but if research on it is not feasible, it cannot be selected. Hence feasibility is a very important consideration.

5) Facilities: Research requires certain facilities such as well-equipped library facility, suitable and competent guidance, data analysis facility, etc. Hence the availability of the facilities relevant to the problem must be considered.

6) Usefulness and social relevance: Above all, the study of the problem should make significant contribution to the concerned body of knowledge or to the solution of some significant practical problem. It should be socially relevant. This consideration is particularly important in the case of higher level academic research and sponsored research. 7) Research personnel: Research undertaken by professors and by

research organizations require the services of investigators and research officers. But in India and other developing countries, research has not yet become a prospective profession. Hence talent persons are not attracted to research projects.

Each identified problem must be evaluated in terms of the above internal and external criteria and the most appropriate one may be selected by a research scholar.

3.5 Objective of Formulating the Problem

A problem well put is half-solved. The primary task of research is collection of relevant data and the analysis of data for finding answers to the research questions. The proper performance of this task depends upon the identification of exact data and information required for the study. The formulation serves this purpose. The clear and accurate statement of the problem, the development of the conceptual model, the definition of the objectives of the study, the setting of investigative questions, the formulation of hypothesis to be tested and the operational definition of concepts and the delimitation of the study determine the exact data needs of the study. Once the exact data requirement is known, the researcher can plan and execute the other steps without any waste of time and energy. Thus formulation gives a direction and a specific focus to the research effort. It helps to delimit the field of enquiry by singling out the pertinent facts from a vast ocean of facts and thus saves the researcher from becoming lost in a welter of irrelevancies. It prevents a blind search and indiscriminate gathering of data which may later prove irrelevant to the problem under study. It helps in determining the methods to be adopted for sampling and collection of data.

3.6 Techniques involved in Formulating Problem

The problem selected for research may initially be a vague topic. The question to be studied or the problem to be solved may not be known. Hence the selected problem should be defined and formulated. This is a difficult process. It requires intensive reading of a few selected articles or chapters in books in order to understand the nature of the problem selected. The process of defining a problem includes:

1. Developing title: The title should be carefully worded. It should indicate

the core of the study, reflect the real intention of the researcher, and show on what is the focus e.g., “Financing small-scale industries by commercial banks.” This shows that the focus is on commercial banks and not on small-scale industries. On the other hand, if the title is “The Financial Problem of Small-scale industries”, the focus is on small-scale industries.

2. Building a conceptual model: On the basis of our theoretical

knowledge of the phenomenon under study, the nature of the phenomenon, its properties / elements and their inter-relations should be identified and structured into a framework. This conceptual model gives an exact idea of the research problem and shows its various properties and variables to be studied. It serves as a basis for the formulation of the objectives of the study, on the hypothesis to be tested. In order to workout a conceptual model we must make a careful and critical study of the available literature on the subject-matter of the selected research problem. It is for this reason; a researcher is expected to select a problem for research in his field of specialization. Without adequate background knowledge, a researcher cannot grasp and comprehend the nature of the research problem.

3. Define the Objective of the Study: The objectives refer to the

questions to be answered through the study. They indicate what we are trying to get through the study. The objectives are derived from the conceptual model. They state which elements in the conceptual model-which levels of, model-which kinds of cases, model-which properties, and model-which connections among properties – are to be investigated, but it is the conceptual model that defines, describes, and states the assumptions underlying these elements. The objectives may aim at description or

explanation or analysis of causal relationship between variables, and indicate the expected results or outcome of the study. The objectives may be specified in the form of either the statements or the questions.

3.7 Criteria of Good Research Problem

Horton and Hunt have given following characteristics of scientific research: 1. Verifiable evidence: That is factual observations which other observers

can see and check.

2. Accuracy: That is describing what really exists. It means truth or correctness of a statement or describing things exactly as they are and avoiding jumping to unwarranted conclusions either by exaggeration or fantasizing.

3. Precision: That is making it as exact as necessary, or giving exact number or measurement. This avoids colourful literature and vague meanings.

4. Systematization: That is attempting to find all the relevant data, or collecting data in a systematic and organized way so that the conclusions drawn are reliable. Data based on casual recollections are generally incomplete and give unreliable judgments and conclusions. 5. Objectivity: That is free being from all biases and vested interests. It

means observation is unaffected by the observer’s values, beliefs and preferences to the extent possible and he is able to see and accept facts as they are, not as he might wish them to be.

6. Recording: That is jotting down complete details as quickly as possible. Since human memory is fallible, all data collected are recorded.

7. Controlling conditions: That is controlling all variables except one and then attempting to examine what happens when that variable is varied. This is the basic technique in all scientific experimentation – allowing one variable to vary while holding all other variables constant.

8. Training investigators: That is imparting necessary knowledge to investigators to make them understand what to look for, how to interpret in and avoid inaccurate data collection.

Self Assessment Question I

1. ––––––––––––––––– is the first step in research. 2. Journals are ––––––––––––– of research problems.

3. Internal criteria of research problem consist of –––––– and –––––– .

3.8 Summary

Research really begins when the researcher experiences some difficulty, i.e., a problem demanding a solution within the subject-are of his discipline. The formulation of the topic into a research problem is, really speaking the first step in a scientific enquiry. The selection of one appropriate researchable problem out of the identified problems requires evaluation of those alternatives against certain criteria, which may be grouped into internal criteria and external criteria. A problem well put is half-solved. The primary task of research is collection of relevant data and the analysis of data for finding answers to the research questions. The problem selected for research may initially be a vague topic. The process of defining a problem includes:

 Developing title

 Building a conceptual model

 Define the Objective of the Study

Horton and Hunt have given following characteristics of scientific research:

 Verifiable evidence  Accuracy  Precision  Systematization  Objectivity  Recording  Controlling conditions

3.9 Terminal Questions

1. How is a research problem formulated?

2. What are the sources from which one may be able to identify research problems?

4. What is the classification of research problems? 5. What are the criteria of good research problem?

3.10 Answers to SAQs and TQs

1. Selection of a problem 2. Sources of problem

3. Researcher’s interest and competence

TQs 1. Section 4 2. Section 3.3 3. Section 3.3 4. Section 3.6 5. Section 3.7

Unit 4

Hypothesis

Structure:

4.1 Introduction Objectives

4.2 Meaning and Examples of Hypothesis 4.2.1 Criteria for constructing of hypothesis 4.2.2 Nature of Hypothesis

4.2.3 The need for having Hypothesis 4.2.4 Characteristics of good hypothesis 4.3 Types of hypothesis

4.3.1 Null Hypothesis and alternative hypothesis 4.4 Concepts of Hypothesis

4.4.1 The level of Significance

4.4.2 Decision rule of testing hypothesis 4.4.3 Type I and Type II Errors

4.4.4 Two Tailed and One Tailed Test 4.5 Procedures for testing hypothesis

4.5.1 Making formal statement 4.5.2 Selecting a significant level 4.5.3 Deciding the distribution to use

4.5.4 Selecting a Random Sample and computing am approximate value

4.5.5 Calculation of Probability 4.5.6 Comparing the Probability 4.6 Testing of Hypothesis

4.6.1 Important Parametric Tests Self Assessment Questions

4.7 Summary

4.8 Terminal Questions

4.9 Answers to SAQs and TQs

4.1 Introduction

A hypothesis is an assumption about relations between variables. It is a tentative explanation of the research problem or a guess about the research outcome. Before starting the research, the researcher has a rather general,

diffused, even confused notion of the problem. It may take long time for the researcher to say what questions he had been seeking answers to. Hence, an adequate statement about the research problem is very important. What is a good problem statement? It is an interrogative statement that asks: what relationship exists between two or more variables? It then further asks questions like: Is A related to B or not? How are A and B related to C? Is A related to B under conditions X and Y? Proposing a statement pertaining to relationship between A and B is called a hypothesis.

Objectives:

After studying this lesson you should be able to understand:

 Meaning and Examples of Hypothesis

 Criteria for constructing of hypothesis

 Nature of Hypothesis

 the need for having Hypothesis

 Characteristics of good hypothesis

 Types of hypothesis

 Null Hypothesis and alternative hypothesis

 Concepts of Hypothesis

 The level of Significance

 Decision rule of testing hypothesis

 Type I and Type II Errors

 Two Tailed and One Tailed Test

 Procedures for Testing hypothesis

 Testing of Hypothesis

4.2 Meaning and Examples of Hypothesis

According to Theodorson and Theodorson, “a hypothesis is a tentative statement asserting a relationship between certain facts. Kerlinger describes it as “a conjectural statement of the relationship between two or more variables”. Black and Champion have described it as “a tentative statement about something, the validity of which is usually unknown”. This statement is intended to be tested empirically and is either verified or rejected. It the statement is not sufficiently established, it is not considered a scientific law. In other words, a hypothesis carries clear implications for testing the stated relationship, i.e., it contains variables that are measurable and specifying