26 Figure 2: Source: Fthenakis and Kim, 2009.

Health Effects: Particulate matter emissions (PM 10) for CNG/LNG powered vehicles amount to approximately 15 kg over its lifetime which is only slightly less than diesel vehicles, which emit around 16 kg over its lifetime. However, when comparing PM emissions to gasoline- powered vehicles, CNG/LNG vehicles emit 10 kg less than gasoline vehicles (Hackney and Neufville, 2001)

Ozone Depletion: The impact on ozone depletion of vehicles fueled by natural gas is about a factor of 3 less than both diesel and gasoline-powered cars (Nigge, 2000).

Acidification: The impact on acidification of vehicles fueled by natural gas is about a factor of 3 less than gasoline-powered cars, and a factor of 4 less than diesel (Nigge, 2000).

Eutrophication: Information addressing this impact category from studies employing life cycle based methodologies where not found.

Plug-In Electric Powered Vehicles

Background: Plug-in Electric Vehicles (PEV), also known as Battery-Electric Vehicles (BEV), are powered and propelled solely by electric motors. The power source of electric vehicles stem from the chemical energy stored in battery packs that can be recharged on the electricity grid (Nemry, et. al, 2009). An efficient battery is the key technological element to the development of practical electric vehicles. There are six types of batteries for use within BEVs; nickle- metal hydride, nickel-cadmium, lithium ion, zinc-air, and flywheels. The most commonly used battery in BEVs is the lithium-ion battery because they are lighter and can store more energy. Li-ion batteries are virtually maintenance free, does not lose its capacity when repeatedly charged after a partial charge, and have a low self-discharge rate (Notter, et. al, 2010). The metals present

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within the batteries must first be mined, processed to remove impurities and isolate the metals, and then manufactured into the battery packs.

Global Warming: Although electric vehicles are characterized by having zero local emissions, much of the GHG emissions depend primarily on the source of electricity used for charging car batteries (Creutzig, et. al, 2009). The energy mix that the power plant has significantly impacts GHG emissions. If the electric vehicle plugs into a power provider that is dominated by coal, then GHG emissions in gCO2/km are similar for gasoline-powered cars- around 130-150

gCO2/km. However, if the power provider uses exclusively renewable and hydroelectric energy, GHG emissions are significantly reduced to less than 20 gCO2/km (Creutzig, et. al, 2009). Equally dependent on fuel mix is the amount of energy required to power the car a certain distance, known as the efficiency. Electric vehicles require less primary energy (MJ/km) than gasoline cars for both coal dependent and renewable energy plants, although it is significantly less so for renewable energy plants. A recent study by the Swiss Federal Laboratories for Material Science and Technology investigated the contribution of lithium-ion batteries to the total environmental impact of a BEV. They found that only fifteen percent of the total

environmental burden is attributed to the battery which includes its manufacture, maintenance and disposal. (Notter, et. al, 2010).

Acidification: Powering a car with electricity would result in a 31 percent decrease in NOx

emissions, which includes coal-powered plant emissions, when compared to powering a car with gasoline (Kaplan and Sargent, 2010).

Health Effects: Particulate matter (PM 10) emissions from battery electric vehicles are derived entirely from the electricity generation. Power plants that use coal has higher PM emissions than would be generated from cleaner fuels and renewable energy sources. With the current energy mix, PM emissions for BEV amount to approximately 20 kg over its lifecycle, whereas PM emissions for gasoline vehicles amount to approximately 25 kg (Hackney and Neufville, 2001). There is significant concern of mercury emissions to water. The impact mercury emissions have on human health and water quality is well researched although how data from this research is used by TRACI was not clear. The Minnesota Department of Health and Minnesota Pollution Control Agency both track and publish health advisories due to mercury emissions (Pollution Control Agency (a)). Fifty six percent of mercury emissions to the states waterwayscome from coal fired power generation plants (Pollution Control Agency (b)). Investigation was not able to determine how risk of exposure to mercury is included in non-cancer impacts due to electricity consumption used to produce these fuels.

Ozone Depletion: Battery electric vehicles can reduce ozone depletion emissions by about 40% compared to petroleum fuels due to the use of low-methane content fuels and improved vehicle efficiency which lower NOx and other hydrocarbon emissions (Hackney and Neufville, 2001).

Eutrophication: Information addressing this impact category from studies employing life cycle based methodologies where not found.

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Table 3: Summary of life-cycle literature impacts for select second generation and emerging transport fuels (directional comparisons to baseline petroleum fuels vary across individual studies).

Fuels Global Warming _Potential Acidification Eutrophication Photochemical _{Oxid. (smog)} Health _{Effects/Resp.} Land Water Use

Cellulosic Ethanol 70% -106% ↓ [1] Feedstock dependent: NOx ↑ [4] Feedstock dependent: Corn Stover ↑ Switchgrass ↓ [7] Feedstock dependent: VOCs some forest biomass ↑ [8] PM 2.5 ↓ compared to corn ethanol [9] 0.7 - 0.97 global HA/car/year [11] Refining: 1.9 gal/gal Thermochemical; 6 gal Biochemical [14]

Oil Sands Gasoline 13-300%↑ [2] NOx and Sox: _{200% ↑ [5]} Napthenic _{acids ↑ [10]}

2 tons of oil sand mined per BBL crude oil; land fragmentation [12] Refining: 2 - 4.5 gal./gal. [15] Extraction: Unknown Coal to Liquid W/O CSS: 110%, -, 2,000% ↑ With CSS: 4%↓ -25% ↑ [3]

↑SOx [6] Expanded coal _{mining [13]}

Refining: 5 - 7 gal/gal [16] Extraction: Unknown Plug-In Electric Vehicle

(Battery Electric Vehicle) 27% ↓ [17] NOx : 31% ↓ [19] VOCs 93% ↓ [21] PM 10 ↓ compared to gasoline [22] Natural Gas 20 (CNG)-30% (LNG) ↓ Biomethane: carbon neutral [18] 3x ↓ compared to gasoline [20] PM 10: ↓ Compared to gasoline [23] 312 m 2_{/GWh [24]}

1. LCA results of GHG intensity measured in gm CO2 equiv./MJ: Farrell, 2006 (as compared to reference value of 94 gCO2eq/MJ for gasoline). Measured as % GHG’s are reduced compared to reported value of CPB: Searchinger, 2008;Wang, 2007; Farrell, 2006; EPA (g), 2007; Range Fuels, NREL, 2008.

2. LCA results of GHG intensity in grams of CO2eq./MJ: Charpentier, 2009; Brandt/Farrell, 2007; Unnasch, 2009. Reported as an increase compared to baseline: Marano, 2009; McCann, 1999;Pembina Institute&Woynillowicz, 2007.A shift from crude oil to oil sands technology would greatly increase emissions unless accompanied by simultaneous abatement technology(Hill, 2009)

3. LCA results of GHG intensity for CTL w/o carbon sequestration in grams of CO2 equiv./MJ: Brandt/Farrell, 2007; van Vliet, 2009;EPA (g), 2007; Jaramillo, 2008; AAAS,2009; Patzek, 2007. Values w/ carbon sequestration: Jaramillo, 2008; NAS, 2009 (Tillman);EPA (g), 2007;van Vliet,2009.

4. Acidification potential is feedstock dependent: Corn stover pretreatment with sulfuric acid significantly adds to acidification potential(Kim/Dale (2005);Inputof 1000 kg straw to produce lignocellulosic ethanol showed 5 Eco-Indicator 99 points(low acidification potential)( Uihlein,2009); NOx is 12X higher for cellulosic than gasoline (1.854 g NO2/mile vs. 0.149 gNO2/mile) mostly due to soil emissions (NREL/Cleary, 2008).

5. Emissions of NOx and SO2 increased relative to petroleum diesel. Current acidification not increased- appears that P loading will persist until sediment and groundwater is overwhelmed, and then acidification will occur (Hazewinkel, 2008). NOx and SO2 emissions more than double fossil (Bergerson/Keith, 2006)

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7.Continuous corn w/ stover collection increases the eutrophication potential by almost a factor of 3 vs. corn-soybean w/ conventional till (Powers, 2005); Corn stover pretreatment by sulfuric acid significantly adds to eutrophication potential(Kim/Dale,2008). An increase in monocrops for cellulosic would reduce crop diversification and would cause the degradation of soil and water quality through eutrophication of downstream water bodies (Blanco-Canqui ,2009). Harvest of corn stover for cellulosic ethanol prod. would likely increase erosion and nutrient loads, which will adversely affect these already nutrient-stressed waters. An extensive root network of switchgrass can reduce runoff, erosion, and associated N and P loss(Simpson,2008).

8. Tree plantations of a number of species (e.g. Poplar) for cellulosic ethanol are significant isoprene emitters. Isoprene is the most abundant biogenic VOC. Also, tropospheric Ozone is associated with forest degradation (Chameides et. al. 1994 - from Hess 2008).

9. Growing perennial biomass crops for cellulosic ethanol results in lower PM2.5 levels than corn ethanol because less fossil fuel and fertilizer are required. (Hill,2008); Hess et.al (2008). 10. Naphthenic acids in tailings pond water can have acute aquatic toxicity to a variety of aquatic organisms including fish (Marano, 2009).

11. 0.7 hectares required to fuel one car (Farrell, 2006). 0.97 global cropland hectares Ecological Footprint(Vos,2007). Uncertainties exist rg. the availability of excess, abandoned ag. Land and marginal and degraded lands (Sagar,2007) Land Occupation - 25 Eco-Indicator points (Uihlein,2009).

12. 2 tons sand mined for 1brl.crude oil(Patel,2007); Mining of tar sands in northern Alberta leaves behind large open pits, tailings and overburden piles (Elshorbagy ,2005); Alberta issued their first- ever oil sands land reclamation certificate for a 104 ha. property (Gateway Hill) located near Edmonton in 2008. (Alberta Gov.,2008); Landscape fragmentation (wildlife) is of concern with strip mining as well as in-situ. (Jordaan, 2009), (Unnasch, 2009)

13. NRDC,2008

14. Refining:Biochemical- 6 gallons. Thermochemical- 1.9 gallons (Aden,NREL,2007)

15. Refining: 2 - 4.5 gallons of water/gallon- 82% of water coming from Athabasca River (Thomas-Muller,2008). Complete disruption of subsurface hydrology- extensive reclamation work to reestablish hydrologic cycle (Elshorbagy et. al. 2005). In-situ extraction poses severe groundwater contamination problems due to leakage of diluting materials (Patel, 2007).

16. Hypothetical CTL - water use could vary froml-1.5 barrel/ per barrel product (zero-discharge air-cooled plant) to 5-7 bbl water/ barrel product (water cooling and less use of waste heat for process heat)(Nowakowski, 2008). Large volumes of discharged contaminated water result from FT coal-to-liquid (Patzek,66).

17. A study conducted by the Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) found that a car fueled by electricity from unused capacity in our current system emits 27 percent less global warming pollution than a car fueled by gasoline. This percentage varies from region to region, but emissions would be lower in every area of the country except for the Northern Plains states where emissions would stay the same. (Kinter-Meyer, et. al, 2007).

18. On a BTU-BTU displacement basis, switching from diesel to fossil-based CNG by 20-25% and LNG by 25-30%. Switching from fossil based CNG and LNG to biomethane based CNG can reduce emissions further (Natural Gas Use in Transportation Roundtable, 2010).

19. Kaplan and Sargent, 2010

20. The impact on acidification of vehicles fueled by natural gas is about a factor of 3 less than gasoline powered cars, and a factor of 4 less than diesel (Nigge, 2000)

21. Energy’s Pacific Northwest National Laboratory found that electricity powered vehicles powered by our current energy sources result in 93% less smog forming VOCs (Kaplan, and Sargent, 2010).

22. PM emissions from battery electric vehicles amount to 20 kg over its lifetime compared to 25 kg for gasoline. However diesel powered vehicles PM emissions amount to only slightly over 15 kg over its lifetime (Hackney and Neufville, 2001).

23. PM 10 emissions from CNG/LNG vehicles (15 kg) are only slightly lower than diesel (16 kg), but much lower than gasoline emissions (25 kg) (Hackney and Neufville, 2001). 24. Land use is determined by both direct and indirect use. Indirect use includes using diesel fuel for drilling (Fthenakis and Kim, 2009).

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