1
Recommended Practices for the
Application of LEAN Construction
Methods to Building New Australian
LNG Capacity
Recommended Practices for the Application of LEAN Construction Methods to Building New Australian LNG Capacity
987-0-85825-975-1
© Engineers Australia, 2012
All rights reserved. Other than brief extracts, no part of this publication may be produced in any form without the written consent of the publisher.
Acknowledgements
This Recommended Practice is the culmination of a series of events and workshops hosted by Woodside, UWA and Engineers Australia to gather the knowledge of LNG LEAN Construction in WA and around the world. For more details contact Neil Kavanagh, Chief Science & Technology Manager Woodside Energy Ltd; Leanne Hardwick, Executive Director, WA Division, Engineers Australia; or Professor David Day, Winthrop Professor/Woodside Chair in Leadership and Management, University of Western Australia. Participants in these events included:
AGC Forge Clough NMS
Austal Ships Foster Wheeler NRW Civil and Mining
Australian Institute of
Management IBM Global Business Services Southern Cross Electrical Engineering
BGC Georgiou Park Engineers
CB&I John Holland Group Present Group
Cetra Technologies KBR Rio Tinto
Chiyoda Kentz O'Donnell Griffin
Civmec Construction &
Engineering Killarnee Civil & Concrete Contractors Steelplan
Clough Laing O'Rourke Technip
Competency Based
Solutions Matrix Composites & Engineering Tenix SDR Pty Ltd
Curtin University Lean Project Consulting Transfield Worley Services Decmil Australia Leighton Contractors Pty
Ltd UGL Resources Ltd
Downer Australia LMR UWA Business School
Engineers Australia Lean Construction Institute VDM Group
Evans Peck McConnell Dowell Woodside
Table of Contents
1
FOREWORD ... 1
2
PRINCIPLES OF LEAN CONSTRUCTION ... 2
2.1
The 5 guiding principles ...4
2.2
Womack and Jones’s LEAN principles ...5
3
RECOMMENDED PRACTICE ... 6
3.1
Eliminating Waste ...6
3.2
Target Value Design ... 11
3.3
Building Information Modeling (BIM) ... 16
3.4
Last Planner System ... 19
3.5
Pull Planning... 28
3.6
Information Centre Meetings ... 31
3.7
5S and Visual Management... 37
3.8
Standardised work ... 46
3.9
Continuous improvement (CI)... 54
3.10
Built in quality and error proofing ... 60
3.11
Just in Time (JIT) ... 69
4
HELPFUL RESOURCES ... 74
4.1
A3 Reports ... 74
4.2
Recommended reading ... 75
Page | 1
1
Foreword
Building new LNG infrastructure is a massive industrial undertaking, creating nationally significant wealth engines that operate for more than a generation.
Australia is LNG lucky. It leads the world in the construction of new LNG plants, with plants under construction in Western Australia, Queensland and the Northern Territory. Why then the focus on LEAN Construction and why publish this guideline?
New LNG infrastructure is capital intensive costing billions of dollars per train. Australian LNG plants are generally in remote locations so providing a large local workforce of affordable skilled labour is a challenge. How then can the cost of new Australian onshore LNG capacity remain globally competitive ($/tonne per annum)?
One very promising approach is to employ Lean thinking. LEAN is a philosophy that removes non-value adding activity and changes all stakeholders in the value chain. LEAN Construction is the adaption of LEAN to project delivery. It is an excellent framework with which to deliver a transformation in construction productivity for Australian LNG.
Australia has the expertise to transform quickly due to its world class experience of real LNG construction.
Where else has this happened before? The manufacturing industry has transformed itself over the last 25 years, with high tech consumer items now radically more affordable then was ever thought possible. Even in a modern high wage environment, onshore LNG plant construction in Australia can follow the lead of manufacturing and use the LEAN
Construction framework to achieve ultra-high productivity. The key is to move project thinking from a series of one-off endeavours to seeing major projects as a continuous system of construction featuring constant continuous improvement of the repeating parts.
All stakeholders must play their role to achieve meaningful success – owners, main contractors, sub-contractors, equipment suppliers, regulatory agencies, individual tradesman and trainers.
This guideline introduces LEAN Construction techniques to those wishing to transform and seeking a first step on this important journey.
Good luck
Dr Julie Morgan
Chair, Oil and Gas Facilities Group, WA Division Engineers Australia Leo Coci
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2
Principles of LEAN Construction
“Lean is the engagement of all the employees in an organisation in the on-going identification and elimination of waste.”
In 1990, James Womack, Dan Jones and Dan Roos wrote The Machine that Changed the World, based on a three year MIT Study into the automotive industry, which showed Toyota outperforming the large US car manufacturers by a factor of 2:1 on quality, cost and time to market.
They coined the term “LEAN” to describe the way the Toyota Production System sought to continually identify and eliminate waste. They described it as a fundamentally different system “of thinking about how humans work together to add value”.
Today LEAN is being used the world over in virtually every different industry and service from mining to manufacturing, hospitals to hotels, governments to grocers and now construction.
Many of the LEAN tools and techniques seem very simple, basic things you think you are doing already. Take a closer look, go to your work site, walk around and talk to people. If you challenge your assumptions and try to see the waste within your own organisation, you will start to see the potential of these tools and your people to use them.
It is often said that LEAN is implemented from the bottom up, but it is led and sustained from the top down. A LEAN transformation is a serious change program for any
organisation and should not be undertaken lightly.
Leadership commitment is paramount – a sense of urgency should exist around the program and a strong guiding coalition formed to steer the program from its beginnings. A vision should be articulated for LEAN in the organisation, which is communicated not only formally, but informally, by leadership language and behaviour.
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Challenge
the Status Quo
Go & See
Continuous
I
mprovementRespect the
Individual
Teamwork
Value
Value
Stream
Flow
Pull
Perfection
Last Planner Pull Planning Information Centre Meetings
5S Standardised Work ImprovementContinuous Waste Target Value Design BIM
Built in
Quality Just In Time
The 5 Guiding Principles:
Womack & Jones Lean Principles:
The Recommended Practice Fundamental Techniques:
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2.1
The 5 guiding principles
Challenge the Status Quo
The first Principle is about having the mindset that just because something has always been done this way, does not mean that it should continue to be. We should not be satisfied with the Status Quo and should continually challenge our ideas and processes in order to improve them.
Go & See
If we want to improve our process we must go and look at it ourselves. If there is a challenge or a problem or an opportunity, YOU go out to the actual worksite to look at it. Problems are not solved behind a desk and inspiration will not strike doing your emails. Continuous Improvement
There are always opportunities for improvement – we need to create systems and behaviours within the organisation to encourage, facilitate and recognise Continuous Improvement. Leaders should encourage simple, quick and inexpensive ideas for
improvement, allow their teams to trial these and build the results into the process using the LEAN tools and techniques.
Respect the Individual
Each individual has a role to play in the organisation and we should respect this and their knowledge. If they are doing a job day in and day out they will know a lot more about that job than anyone else, so leaders need to tap into this knowledge and free up the creativity of their people.
Teamwork
There should be a pride in working for a team, which comes as each individual’s strengths and weaknesses are understood and improved. In the LNG building business, the "team" comprises employees from client, main contractor, subcontractor, supplier and regulator organisations. Communication should be good within the team and everyone should feel a part of the work and be able to contribute ideas. We need to remove the fear of asking dumb questions and work together for a solution. The 5 Guiding Principles are often displayed at the workplace above an Information
Centre (Section 3.6) and referred to during the meetings: • “I’d like to Challenge that assumption”
• “Let’s do a Go & See after the meeting as a team to look at that issue”
• “Joe’s the tradesman on that job – lets go out and talk to him about the issue” • “Our safety performance has been good, but what can we do to get Continuous
Improvement here – how are your ideas coming?”
Using LEAN language helps to reinforce the philosophies of LEAN and the leaders actually reflecting this in their behaviour will do more to cement the change than anything else.
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2.2
Womack and Jones’s LEAN principles
Value
In thinking about LEAN and how to remove waste from the organisation, we must first think about what actually adds value in the organisation. In order to do this we define value in terms of the ultimate customer for the construction.
We must continually ask “What adds value to the customer?” “What design, fit and function is required and what is not?” When we focus on this we start to open our eyes to practices which do not add value and are waste.
Value Stream
To help see in more detail how our processes work, we map out a Value Stream for some of the materials we use on site. We choose some typical parts – a gasket, a steel beam or a pump, and follow the part through its life cycle from when it is specified, to being ordered, made, transported, stored, transported again and finally assembled.
When we start to map all of the movements and hold ups and rework we start to see more of the waste within our current work.
Flow
Now we imagine that all of the material flowed efficiently to site and into construction with no hold ups and no rework. How can we design our process so that this happens time after time?
Pull
When we have all of our value adding steps flowing, we start to reduce the timescales in which we work, and turn our work around so that we are only doing work when it is required by the customer or by the next process. We are working to a Just In Time method, building only what is needed, when it is needed, with no waste in the process. Perfection
Now we embark upon Continuous Improvement – we have a good process, but surely we can tap into our workforce for their knowledge and their ideas about how we could further eliminate waste, add more value to the customer and improve our process on a day to day basis.
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3
Recommended Practice
3.1
Eliminating Waste
Waste is defined as anything which does not added value to the customer. Value added work is what changes the form or function of the building or structure, for example, bolting a valve or pouring concrete, it is what the customer is willing to pay for. Non-value added work or waste is everything else, such as waiting for inspection, movement around the site, rework of welds. We do all of these things but they do not actually add value to the building or structure.
Imagine a work site where everyone on the site is aware of what waste is and tries to identify it and then eliminate it from their day to day work. This is the start of a Continuous Improvement culture and the key to improved quality and productivity.
In order to help us see waste within our process, we split it down further into the 7 wastes (Figure 1) (remembered with the acronym WORMPIT):
• Waiting – for materials or specifications for a job before it can start, waiting for others to finish their part of a job, waiting for sign off before moving on
• Over Production – producing more than is required by the customer; in a construction environment this may be working on items which are not on the critical path instead of items which are
• Rework – any job which is not to the right specification or quality and has to be rectified is waste
• Motion – the movement around the site of the people themselves is not actually adding any value to the site
• Processing (over) – doing too much to a job, producing too high a specification when it is not necessary, for example painting 3 times what only needs to be painted once • Inventory – too much or too little inventory is waste, we need the right amount to
enable us to do the job well
• Transportation – moving equipment, tools or materials around the site is waste as it does not add value to the construction work
3.1.1
Deployment
The first step in the process is to identify which key areas, tasks or crews you will target to eliminate waste. This may sound odd, but eliminating waste means working
differently and this takes resources – so it is wise to do this where you will get the largest return initially.
Ideally, everyone on site will understand, look for and work to eliminate waste, but we do not start at this condition, so we choose a series of tasks to work on to grow these skills within our organisation.
The work areas chosen should give the biggest return on our time and investment. Then for each area, task or crew we can take one of two initial approaches.
Page | 7
Overproduction
(eg not on critical path)
Waiting
(eg for materials, sign off, previous work)
Repair / rework
(eg re-welding rectifying)
Motion
(eg to worksite / materials)
Over processing
(eg painting 3 times when 1 will do)
Inventory
(over or under)
Transportation
(eg from one laydown area to another)
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Approach 1 – Waste Walks
Waste Walks are a relatively light touch approach to identification and elimination of waste (Figure 2 shows an example of a Waste Walk Sheet) and should include: • teaching the crew(s) working in the area/on the task about the 7 wastes
• asking the Team Leader/Superintendent to Go & See the work site and spending some time (~30 minutes) watching how work is performed
• noting down examples of each of the 7 wastes that you see On a Waste Walk sheet • going through these findings with the crew and highlighting the top one or two
wastes which the crew can tackle
• investigating the root cause of the waste (using Go & See and 5 Whys) and coming up with countermeasures
• implementing the easy, high benefit countermeasures that the crew can do for themselves
• taking the next Waste Walk.
Waste Walk
Area Observed: Observer: Date:
Waiting: Recommendation / Action
Over Production: Recommendation / Action
Rework: Recommendation / Action
Motion: Recommendation / Action
Processing (over): Recommendation / Action
Inventory: Recommendation / Action
Transportation: Recommendation / Action
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Approach 2 – Value Stream Mapping
• Value Stream Mapping is a more in-depth technique designed to set out each of the steps from the beginning to the end of a specific process (including how much inventory, rework and waiting there is within a process) and includes:
• teaching the crew(s) working in the area/on the task about the 7 wastes
• asking the Team Leader/Superintendent to Go & See the work site and spend some time (~1-3 days) mapping out each step of the process, engaging with the crew • using post-it notes to display these steps up on a wall, including data for each step:
o number of people doing the work o how long it takes
o any rework seen
o any inventory seen between steps o any waiting between steps
• inviting the crew in, refreshing them on the 7 wastes, asking them to review and agree with the process, then identifying waste in the process with a different coloured post-it note
• brainstorming countermeasures for each of the wastes (once again some further investigation may be necessary) and adding these to the wall
• ranking the countermeasures by ease of implementation and benefit to the process • implementing the easy, high benefit countermeasures first and then working
through the others.
Figure 3 shows a Value Stream Map for a process. The yellow post–it notes describe the process and data and the different coloured notes are the countermeasure ideas identified by the crew.
Figure 3 Value Stream Map
The identification and elimination of waste is an on-going process. Once the first set of countermeasures has been implemented, it is time to start again to identify waste in the remaining process.
Page | 10 When all personnel are trained and experienced in finding and eliminating waste, this starts to happen everywhere on site on an on-going basis, that is, “the engagement of all employees in an organisation in the ceaseless identification and elimination of waste”.
3.1.2
Pre-requisites for Deployment
Waste Elimination is an activity that must be done by the crews, team leaders and
superintendents themselves. In this way they will own the process and start to see waste more clearly and target it more effectively. It is better to have 5,000 people looking for waste than just a few leaders or engineers.
However, leadership and support is necessary from the whole management team for waste identification and elimination to be an everyday part of the job. Leaders on site need to support the identification of waste and support the devotion of time to Waste Walks and Value Stream Mapping (VSM).
Everyone involved in an area eliminating waste should receive training to understand what the 7 wastes are and how to see them in their workplace. This should include: • initial training sessions for all the workers involved
• construction of a training schedule that devotes time to each area, task or crew which has been selected for waste elimination.
3.1.3
Measurement
A good measure for the success of the waste elimination program is the number of people trained in the 7 Wastes and the number of Waste Walks/VSM sessions being carried out.
Overall success will be measured in terms of productivity and quality improvements, but this is difficult to link back to the Waste Walks. It is easier with the VSM process as there are usually less of these and they have a more defined outcome.
For further information on measurement criteria refer to Appendix 2.
3.1.4
Frequently asked questions
Construction is different – will this really work here?
Yes! Every work place and organisation is different, but some fundamentals are the same. Everyone is able to identify waste within their own process. It must then be
understood in terms of the 7 wastes and recognised as not adding value to the customer. I have heard of an 8th waste – what is this?
LEAN initially described the 7 wastes. An 8th waste of wasted human ingenuity was subsequently added – each of the LEAN tools and techniques tries to harness this ingenuity by engaging the crews in the process.
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3.2
Target Value Design
Target Value Design (TVD) or “designing to a target cost” is an approach to design where the final project cost is a design parameter, much as throughput or aesthetics might be. TVD requires the establishment of a Target Cost by the team (specifically including the owner) at the start of a project. The team then cannot exceed that cost without owner approval and uses various techniques to maintain this discipline. In some cases, the cost will go up but the team must be committed to bringing it back down and make every effort to do so without compromising other parameters.
TVD has been demonstrated to provide cost awareness to teams in a way that allows them to collaborate in maintaining or under running a required or target cost. By continually estimating the current cost of the project and designing accordingly, rework due to cost overruns is avoided.
3.2.1
Deployment
The steps in process deployment are as follows:
• Project management and team members agree that TVD is going to be part of the design process for a specific project or phase of a project.
• The team defines the current scope of the project and gathers all existing cost data or information for that scope.
• Estimators, or the appropriate staff, take that data and prepare an estimate for this scope in whatever format is acceptable to the team.
• This cost data is displayed in a TVD format (Figure 4) for review and acceptance by the entire team.
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Figure 4 Target Value Design for a field house project
Other options are:
• The estimator works with the design team to provide cost impact data for decisions or changes from the scope defined above. The relationship between the estimator and designers is ongoing and continuous – ideally in a “big room” where all team members work and collaborate. This impact data is displayed on the TVD A3. • The team (or multi-function smaller parts of the team) review the overall impact of
the cost data and work to ensure that the Target Cost is never exceeded. Typically this means that if one cost “bucket” goes up, another one must come down, providing hard targets or goals for the multi-function teams to address.
3.2.2
Pre-requisites for deployment
Minimum standards for deployment assume that:
• the team has some background training in the Target Value Design and understand their roles in the process
• an estimate of the current project cost is available • staff with conceptual estimating skill are available
• team members are prepared to work with the estimating staff to understand the cost of their decisions or design development.
Page | 13 Resources required for deployment include:
• a project estimate that is accepted as a target cost by the entire team including the owner, construction, etc.
• a target cost tracking scheme (probably an Excel workbook) available and clearly displaying the cost impact of decisions or planning by the team
• the ability to continuously estimate, including conceptual estimating capability. The team (owner, management, engineers, designers, etc.) must understand that the Target Cost is a design parameter that must be achieved, much as throughput, quality or safety is. The team will regularly (daily or weekly) review the current status of project’s progress toward (or away from) the target cost and work to meet the target. Typically, multi-functional teams are established to work on each of the cost “buckets”.
The most important part of TVD is starting with an estimate that the team not only accepts but believes is correct and provides the best current project information.
Without this consensus, it is very hard for team members to work on meeting or beating the Target Cost.
The example shown above has “buckets” for costs on a specific project. For many projects these “buckets” work and tie easily to a typical project estimate. In other cases much different “buckets” are needed to define the costs and to provide a basis for working to the Target Cost. The team can select and develop “buckets” that meet their needs. See some of the examples below.
In most cases the costs in a “bucket” are not the responsibility of one team member or even one group of team members, which is why we talk about “multi-functional” teams working to meet the Target Cost. For instance, in the field house example, the multi-functional team working on Mechanical would include a representative from the architects, electrical and probably the owner, not just the mechanical designer or contractor.
Figure 5 shows an example of an Excel Work Sheet use to track costs on a Photovoltaic Cell project. The “buckets” and breakdown came from the project estimate.
Figure 6 is an example of an Excel Worksheet used to track costs on a hospital project. Note that the “buckets” represent Guaranteed Maximum Price packages with the costs for individual contractors participating in those packages shown. Each contractor is responsible for maintaining or beating the Project Target Value.
These examples are only a beginning of how TVD displays can be used. The team must develop categories and “buckets” that best meet their needs and display the cost performance in the most efficient and accurate way.
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Figure 5 Cost tracking on a photovoltaic cell project
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3.2.3
Frequently asked questions
How do we establish a Target Cost?
The term Target Cost refers to a number or dollar estimate that cannot be exceeded. As part of the Target Value Design process, the Target Cost is a dollar estimate established by the team at the beginning of a project or design effort that reflects the best
understanding of the cost associated with the current project scope
In some cases an owner or other team member may choose to keep contingency, fees or their own costs out of this number. This is only acceptable if the team understands the situation. In other words, the Target Cost should reflect any and all scope that the team can impact, either positively or negatively.
The actual development or basis of the Target Cost can be in any format: by system, by area, by cost code, by contract value, square footage or tons per year – as long as all accept this as the most accurate available number at the time. Typically, the estimate of the Target Cost is presented on an A3 document with an appropriate breakdown as shown in the examples above. The team uses this display to understand their progress, even if the detailed estimate is in a multi-page document prepared by an estimator. What is “conceptual estimating”?
The benefit of TVD comes from the team understanding the impact of each decision they make on the Target Cost. The only way for this to happen is for the cost impact to be developed and displayed as the design process proceeds. This means that the estimator must work in conjunction with the design team to provide them with cost information on a continuing basis. To do this, an estimator must be able to work with preliminary or “sketchy” information and provide the cost to the designer. In most cases “final”
drawings, specifications or reports will not be available and typical estimating techniques of doing takeoffs, counting fittings or square footage do not work. Thus the estimator must be able to provide cost information based on a “concept” – conceptual estimating. A real benefit of this system comes from knowing these costs during the design process and never working on or completing a design that will exceed the target cost eliminating rework or “value engineering”.
How often must the team review the progress toward Target Cost?
The simple answer is continuously. Realistically, the team should be presented with information making their progress clear once a week or fortnight. This ongoing
development of cost information makes a monthly report to management or senior team members an easy task and should minimise preparation of detailed forecasts or
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3.3
Building Information Modelling (BIM)
Building Information Modelling is an expansion of the capabilities of 3D CAD (Computer Aided Design). Typically it includes the use of the model for visualisation, coordination and collaboration between design entities, different trades (electrical, mechanical, etc.) or designers, constructors and operators.
Current technology has advanced to the point that the model can be tied to the schedule (displaying work completed versus work to be done), the materials management system (displaying areas where material is available or not) and the estimate (providing on-going cost information). BIM is seen as a way to dramatically improve design and field performanceby minimising clashes, insuring compatibility between trades or areas and allowing fabrication issues to surface before construction is started.
3.3.1
Deployment
Deployment Process Steps include:
• agreeing to use a model and what parts of the project will be modelled • agreeing on hardware, software, location of work stations, etc.
• developing project standards for the model that meet the needs of all users (layers, coordinates, amount of detail, etc.)
• starting to build the model based on drawings, sketches, an existing model or whatever is available
• using the model for reviewing progress, collaborating on design decisions, confirming locations of equipment, clash detection, etc.
• establishing a routine for viewing and checking the model so it becomes the centre of the project team’s attention.
• incorporating input from additional team members (mechanical, electrical, fire protection, etc.) about the model and confirming the necessary amount of detail for this new input such as metal cutting, fabrication, isometrics, etc.
• developing a plan for use of the model by field personnel including connection with schedule and/or materials management systems.
3.3.2
Pre-requisites for deployment
BIM provides one of most important breakthroughs in construction planning, design and execution since the Critical Path Method of planning and scheduling became common. However, the team must learn to use the model, to trust the people constructing it and to regularly “Go & See” what is happening on the model. Kymmell (2008) describes three necessary roles:
• BIM Manager - in essence a project manager for the model – someone who understands what it can do, what people need to do to make that happen and the ability to get people and organisations to do that.
• BIM Operators – all the engineers, designers, IT specialists who actually produce the model - training and knowledge are essential as it is much easier and more effective to get it done correctly the first time than to rework it later.
• BIM Facilitator – after the model is constructed and work has moved to the field, the BIM Facilitator ensures that the field staff take full advantage of this new tool. The Facilitator works on collaboration between subcontractors in the use of the model, identifies new tools that can assist all team members, and helps superintendents understand what the model can do for them in project meetings.
Page | 17 When a team agrees to use BIM as their primary means of collaboration and design interaction, it is important that all members agree to this and that all members use the model as their design documentation. If one member requires hard-copy 2D drawings for review or checking, many of the advantages of using BIM are lost. Note that many locations still require hard-copy 2D drawings for permitting or government approvals and the team must agree on the most efficient method of preparing these.
BIM is a tool that provides opportunities for much greater collaboration between team members and this collaboration must not be restricted. Consistent use of the model to discuss, review or work on the current design should be an everyday occurrence. Discussions between modellers, engineers, operators and managers must be open, respectful and lead to good decisions on the way forward, whether it concerns a pipe location or an entire site location.
Minimum standards for deployment include:
• access to appropriate computer hardware and software with connection capability between offices, etc.
• agreement between participants on software standards, layer titles, boundaries, coordinates, etc.
• location (ideally) of the designers in a “big room” – either physically or virtually • resolution of who owns the model during design and after construction completion • acceptance of goals for the model and its ultimate use (maintenance, life cycle
costing, etc.) by the team and final owners. The following resources are required for deployment: • agreement as to how the model will be used • hardware and software
• agreed upon schedule and budget for modelling • competent modelling staff.
3.3.3
Frequently asked questions
When do the subcontractors get involved with the model?
This depends on who is building the model and the qualifications of those who are building it. In most cases it is advantageous to have those withactual construction experience and responsibility for construction of the project involved at an early stage, especially if the subcontractor has experienced modellers on staff and plans to use the model in its fabrication or shop operations in the future. Obviously, if the project’s contracting strategy does not allow selection of the subcontractor until model completion and a bidding process, the subcontractor start date is delayed and the advantages of collaboration and construction knowledge is lost during the model design process.
How will the model be used in the field?
This is a team decision that will be based on what tools (schedule tie-in, prefabrication planning, etc.) have been included in the model construction. Ideally, each subcontractor will be able to “bring up” the model for planning and progress meetings, superintendents will be able to demonstrate problem areas to their foremen on the model, links to the material management system will locate system components, overall project progress
Page | 18 will be clearly defined and management can use the model to display issues and progress to those needing such information.
How will the model be used by operations or maintenance when construction is complete?
This question needs to be answered by the team during the early stages of design. BIM can provide numerous tools to help operators and maintenance staff including built-in product or component data, start-up sequences, warnings as to when maintenance is required, etc. However, there is some cost to including these features as the model is being constructed so the final owners of the model must be able to use the features and feel that they provide value. This information must be part of the early decision as to what features to include for operators and maintenance.
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3.4
Last Planner System
The Last Planner© System (LPS) is a production control system for managing projects. It supplements or replaces a typical management system based on activities and a defined schedule produced by a project manager.
The LPS produces predictable workflow and rapid learning. This produces maximum value to the owner by eliminating waste caused by unpredictable workflow. Its use has enabled contractors to reduce the delivery time of a project and at the same time allowed specialty contractors to improve utilisation of their resources.
LPS creates commitments among project participants (trades, crews, contractors, etc.) through a series of planned conversations as in Figure 7. These conversations occur as the team understands and agrees with the requirements of the Master Schedule, works together to prepare the Phase Pull Plan and uses this Pull Plan to identify constraints to accomplishing their work.
Make-Ready Planning and the Weekly Work Planning require commitments between team members to complete their activities as scheduled and are the basis for the increased predictability and reliability of work flow on a project using LPS.
These commitments mean that delivering client value is tied directly to specialist/crew level assignments and coordination between them results from the commitments and promises they make to one another.
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3.4.1
Deployment
The deployment process steps are as follows:
• select project (or portion of), phase, team and leader to implement the Last Planner System
• introduce the LPS process to the team
• review the Pull Phase Plan (or prepare one if not available (see Section 3.5 Pull Planning) and agree on its relevance to and accuracy for the work to be performed. Ideally, the team members or their foreman will have participated in the
development of the Phase Pull Plan.
• print out or display the next six weeks of work from the Pull Phase Plan (Figure 8). • review the next six weeks of activities to determine whether there are any
constraints to accomplishing the tasks shown on it
• list these constraints and agree on who is going to remove them and when (not necessarily a member of this group). This information is typically displayed on a “Constraint Log” (Figure 9).
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Page | 22
Figure 9 Constraint log
• Have the foremen (last planners) responsible for the work prepare a Weekly Work Plan (WWP) for the next week, typically by trade or area (Figure 10 shows the detail necessary in assignment description). Ultimately, the individual WWPs are combined into single plan for the project and reviewed by the team. The team reviews and agrees on this WWP, especially on any conflicting activities – this is the most important part of the LPS. It is this collaboration, discussion and agreement that allow the work flow to become significantly more reliable and, ultimately, more productive, safer and profitable.
Figure 10 Weekly Work Plan
• do the work as scheduled on the WWP, but start (or select an appropriate time) each day with a “huddle” to review the planned daily activities - a meeting, typically standing at the work face, of the “last planners” and manager (superintendent, project manager, etc.). This ensures that there are no new constraints or opportunities to improve the work flow (see Section 3.6 Information Centre Meetings).
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• Identify and record successes or failures in completing the tasks as committed. This record consists of a simple “YES” if the task is completed on the day committed or a “NO” if it was not. As a goal of using LPS is reliable work flow, there is no credit (a “YES”) for completing part of a task on the day committed – the goal is to totally complete the task so that the following or successive trade can do their work as planned. This is one of the major differences between LPS and a typical “progress” reporting system.
• fill in the columns on the WWP form where each task receives a “YES” or “NO” and a reason (variance) for the “NOs”. This recording should be done on a daily basis, typically at the daily “huddle” where the WWP can become part of the Information Centre. When a “NO” is recorded and the reason selected, this should become a learning experience. The team or crew can identify changes that can be made so the failure does not occur again (Figure 11).
Figure 11 Weekly Work Plan with YES/NO and Categories of Variance listed with a calculation of PPC
• plot the “Plan Percent Complete” or PPC. This is an ongoing indication of the team’s ability to plan and execute work on a reliable basis. PPC is simply the number of tasks completed (on the day committed) divided by the total number of tasks scheduled to be completed that week. The PPC provides a metric to demonstrate planning
proficiency and is the key to demonstrating not only how, but how well, the team is doing in creating reliable work flow. Figure 12 shows a PPC calculation form, even though this form indicates performance by contractor, teams are typically judged by the Total Project PPC, which is poor in this case. Figure 13 demonstrates ongoing tracking of PPC which provides an indicator of the team’s ability to adequately plan their work.
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Figure 12 Weekly plan percent complete calculation
Page | 25 Many teams establish a goal or target PPC, typically above 80%. However, even this means that a significant number of tasks are not completed on the day committed, requiring fixes or “fire-fighting” to keep the work flowing. A goal of 100% is obviously harder to achieve or maintain consistently (given weather, client changes, slow response to RFIs, etc.) but provides a real incentive for learning and correcting systemic problems. Figure 14 shows variances as recorded on the WWP for one week. Typically the variances are tracked for a longer period of time. Plotting of the variances is not as important as plotting the actual PPC but does provide an indication to management of any recurring problems within the system.
Figure 14 Variances as recorded on the WWP for one week.
Many teams have found that using a projector and screen is better for reviewing the Make Ready Schedule and Weekly Work Plans than individual prints. The team can concentrate on the screen and the activities rather than their own piece of paper. The exercise of the team preparing the Phase Pull Plan is very important to their
understanding of the work that needs to happen when they do the Make Ready Planning and WWP reviews. It is much better if the same team members do both.
Page | 26 Huddles or Information Centre Meetings are an important part of the LPS. A quick review of progress from the previous day and a look at the activities for the current day provide the team with an understanding of their overall progress. Superintendents typically feel that they communicate with all the foremen by “walking around” and having a one-on-one discussion. A huddle provides a very different and more valuable experience and saves time.
Confirm that every item shown on the Make Ready Schedule for the current week is included on someone’s Weekly Work Plan. In most cases, these items are expanded on the WWP so that more detail is shown and one can easily confirm whether the activity has been completed as scheduled or not. A final check ensures that no activities are on someone’s WWP but not on the Make Ready Schedule – this would indicate that work is being done that has not been planned and may, in fact, prevent another performer from accomplishing his plan.
3.4.2
Pre-requisites for deployment
The minimum standards for deployment are that:
• the team has some background training in the Last Planner System and understanding of their roles in the process
• a Phase Pull Plan is in place for the work that is scheduled for execution (see Section 3.5 Pull Planning). This type of schedule is essential for successful implementation of LPS because it represents the consensus plan of the team preparing to execute the work. A typical schedule prepared by a planner or project manager in a home office is ineffective, especially if the team members are not committed to it or believe it is inaccurate or impossible to achieve.
• prepared LPS forms are available or can be accessed on a computer
• the foremen, group leaders or crew chiefs who will actually do the work participate in the initial preparation and review of the Make Ready Schedule and Weekly Work Plans.
Resources required for deployment include:
• a means (computer program and printer, white board or other) to prepare the necessary Make Ready Schedule and Weekly Work Plans
• Phase Pull Plan for the work being executed
• management support for the implementation of LPS
• last planners with an understanding of and willingness to use the LPS.
The LPS is designed to promote conversation, discussion, collaboration and joint planning of the work to be done. Staff participating in the LPS need to be prepared for this change in behaviour – it is not intended that a superintendent or project manager direct the group. The group works together to decide on the approach and the details of accomplishing their tasks, with the superintendent or project manager acting as a member of the group, not the “commander”.
When activities are not accomplished as scheduled and a NO is reported, this is a time for learning, for understanding why this happened and what can be done to prevent it from occurring again. Remember – this team is to be “hard” on the system (the reason for the failure) and “easy” on the person (the one who didn’t accomplish their task because of the system).
Page | 27 The team must work together to get the project done: “optimise the project not the piece (especially not an individual contractor’s piece of the action)”
3.4.3
Frequently asked questions
Why is it called “Last Planner System”?
The last planner is the person who makes the actual work assignments, typically a foreman or crew chief. The Last Planner System provides a means for the foreman and his team or crew to plan and monitor performance in a way that is visible to all and leads to increased reliability of the work flow.
Can we start with an existing CPM schedule?
No, though some have tried with little success. The basis of the LPS is the understanding of and commitment to a schedule that all “believe in”. That means developing a Phase Pull Schedule and Make Ready Schedule that is the team’s own, that they are committed to, and then use as a basis for their Weekly Work Plans.
What happens if a team member completes a task before it is scheduled?
Typically the team member gets a “YES”; however, if this happens on a consistent basis, the team needs to rethink the planning process. If one member consistently completes prior to his committed date, the successor work could be done early but isn’t because the successor team member has not planned to do it. In LEAN talk this is the basis of “losses add up and gains can never be recovered”, in other words, the team is unable to take advantage of the “fast” member’s performance. There is an argument that finishing early rates a “NO” unless 24 hours’ notice is given that the work will be completed early, allowing the successor to adjust their plans as well.
What is “workable backlog”?
Some teams using LPS add work or tasks below the actual scheduled tasks that are called “workable backlog”. These are tasks that are discussed at the weekly planning meeting and all agree can be performed without hindering any other team members. Then if the team member completes his committed tasks early or can no longer work on his
committed task (because of lack of material, client changes, weather, etc,) he can perform this workable backlog knowing that he will not hinder another team member. Completing or not completing this work has no effect on the PPC – it gets neither a YES nor a NO whether completed or not.
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3.5
Pull Planning
A Phase Pull Plan is prepared by a project team in a collaborative fashion to display the activities necessary to complete a phase of work and identify the best sequence to complete those activities. The phase typically is defined by an “end” target or event – pouring slab on grade, ready to erect steel, or (in the case of a design phase) target cost agreed upon, permit package issued, etc. The team works backwards (pulls) from the end date to the start of the phase to identify the activities necessary to reach the “end” target. The team pays special attention to the “handoffs” – what is necessary to be completed in one activity before the next one can begin. The actual time or duration of a phase is based on the master schedule or the team’s best estimate – phases can be measured in hours for a shut-down, weeks for a typical construction activity, or months if the team is developing an overall project plan.
In using the Last Planner System or traditional project management, it is important that the team understands and accepts the schedule to which they are committing their efforts. Pull Planning, with its requirement for discussion and collaborative
development, allows the participants to have ownership of the schedule as well as providing the most realistic information as to the actual sequence and duration of the activities on the schedule.
3.5.1
Deployment
The deployment process steps are to:
• select team and leader to implement first Pull Plan • introduce Pull Planning process to team
• select activity or process to be planned • procure and set-up necessary materials • perform Pull Plan
o identify each participant and have each describe their role o each participant prepare post-it notes for their tasks o place post-it notes on wall
o as a group, discuss and rearrange post-it notes so they represent the correct sequence of activities
o add durations to post-it notes
o have the team do a final review of the sequence, durations and any described hand-offs
o prepare corporate standard Gantt chart schedule representing the post-it notes on the wall
o issue the Gantt chart schedule to the team and review to ensure that decisions and plans made during the Pull Plan session have been incorporated
o use the Phase Pull Plan for Make Ready Planning and preparing Weekly Work Plans for the project (see Section 3.4 Last Planner System and Figure 15).
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Figure 15 Team members "at the wall"
Start the session with a discussion by each member of their role and how they will perform it.
In organising the sequence of post-it notes, pay particular attention to the handoff requirements – what each member needs prior to beginning their successor task. A joint understanding of handoffs and what is required for each is the most important
difference in using this technique. Ensure that each team member agrees with his predecessor and successor as to state of completion of the activity being discussed.
3.5.2
Pre-requisites for deployment
Team members must understand their part or role in the process being Pull Planned. Openness and willingness to discuss their activities is essential to the success of the Pull Plan – their ability to listen and understand other’s roles and constraints during the process is critical to a successful Pull Plan. The facilitator or leader of the Pull Plan must be open to comments and requests from all the team members and not stifle discussion, especially about the requirements for handoffs.
Minimum standards for deployment are that:
• the target date established for the phase that will be Pull Planned
• the team has some background training in Pull Planning and understanding of their roles in the process. The foremen, group leaders or crew chiefs who will actually do the work should participate in the Pull Plan.
• adequate time has been allowed for the exercise to be completed and have resources available to input the Pull Plan to the corporate scheduling system. A typical Pull Plan is completed in 2 to 4 hours; however, if it is a large phase with many participants a day or more might be required.
Required resources include a whiteboard, glass wall or long sheet of drafting paper, post-it notes typically 3” x 5” or 4” by 6” of different colours (one colour for each group), felt pens and space to congregate around the wall.
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3.5.3
Frequently asked questions
Why is it called “Pull Planning”? -
It is called “Pull Planning” because only the activities that the final “client” has requested, required or “pulled” are included. This is evidenced by beginning at the right side of the “wall” and only adding those activities that are required to accomplish the final
“requested” activity or step.
Can we start with a “wall” that has dates or time periods marked on it? -
Many people do this, especially when pulling a “design” process, be careful that it doesn’t interfere with the team freely developing the sequence they believe will get the phase done in the most appropriate fashion.
Can we use “Pull Planning” when our team is geographically dispersed? The most important benefit from using “Pull Planning” is the discussion and
collaboration that occurs as the post-it notes are being arranged on the “wall”. It is this collaboration that develops a sense of ownership of the schedule by the entire team. If some members of the team are located apart from others, the first suggestion would be to ensure that all groups of team members are represented. If the Pull Plan session is about engineering, then make sure construction and logistics are represented, even if one or two team members must travel to participate. Similarly, if the subject of the session is construction, ensure that some engineering or operation staff are able to participate. If even this approach is impossible, the team should consider video
conferencing or the use of electronic white boards where the post-it notes can be moved remotely.
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3.6
Information Centre Meetings
Information Centre Meetings are 10 – 15 minute stand up meetings around a whiteboard to review key performance metrics (KPIs) for the team on a daily basis. Information Centre Meetings are 10 – 15 minute stand up meetings around a whiteboard to review key performance metrics (KPIs) for the team on a daily basis. Information Centre Meetings form the nerve centres of the project, ensuring each person on site is aware of their role, delivering the site KPIs and enabling problem solving around concerns as they arise (Figure 16).
Figure 16 Information Centre Meetings
3.6.1
Deployment
These meetings take place at workgroup, contractor and site levels. They enable information, targets and results to flow up and down the site organisation.
The workgroup Information Centre Meetings happen as the pre-start meetings between the supervisor and workgroup in the crib room, office or at the worksite (if a mobile Information Centre Board is used).
The contractor Information Centre Meetings occur slightly later after each of the workgroups are underway and involve managers and supervisors at the various contractors’ offices.
The site Information Centre Meeting happens after this and involves the senior management from the owner, EPCM and contractors coming together to review site performance later in the morning.
Page | 32 At each meeting, one of the supervisors or managers leads the team through the metrics on the board - reviewing the past 24 hours, looking ahead to the next 24 hours, week or six weeks and raising any concerns from past performance or future issues.
Workgroup Information Centre Meeting Contractor Information Centre Meeting
Site Information Centre Meeting Purpose Pre-start meeting to review how we went yesterday and specific targets for today
Review metrics from past 24hrs, next 24hrs, 6 week look ahead
Project Snapshot, reviewing barriers to progress (yellow and red KPIs) and develop plans to resolve
Audience Contractor
Supervisor and Workgroup
EPCM and
Contractors Owner and EPCM leadership
Frequency Each Shift Daily Daily
Content
creator/maintainer Individual workgroup KPIs Project KPIs, Critical Path Project KPIs, risk dashboard/issues log
Three key physical elements of an Information Centre Meeting are:
• a short term board which contains visible, easy to understand metrics (you can tell OK from NOK (not ok) in 3 seconds or less for each metric). Metrics are updated by hand and only the metrics needed to run the site, contractor or work area are used. a long term board which holds the master or phase schedule. Progress is tracked daily or weekly here.
• a problem solving board which enables raising, tracking and escalation of concerns. Concerns are raised if a metric is NOK or the schedule is behind. 95% of concerns should be solved at the level at which they are raised, with only 5% moving up to the next level Information Centre Meeting.
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Contractor Info Centre meeting
Workgroup Info Centre ready for pre-start Site Info Centre
meeting
Figure 17 Examples of Information Centre Meetings
The first step in the deployment process is to decide what levels of Information Centre Meetings are required (Figure 18).
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Design of KPIs
High level project KPIs should be translated into KPIs for each contractor, and then for each workgroup. Tradespeople can then see how day to day performance is linked to overall project objectives.
Often a Value Driver Tree is used to break down the high level KPIs and make them into something meaningful on a shift by shift basis. At the site level we may measure outputs of construction, but as we translate this for use lower down we change to measuring inputs to construction. If we take care of the inputs, the outputs should take care of themselves.
The owner sets the high level KPIs then the EPCM and Contractors become involved in the iteration of these and how they will be delivered. For example:
• Equipment availability > 85% (at site information centre):
o all equipment shown and planned maintenance > 90% on time (at contractor level information centre)
o Pareto and problem solving on major faults with equipment (at contractor level
information centre)
o daily equipment checks done (at workgroup level information centre)
o equipment released on time formaintenance (at workgroup level information centre)
Each of these KPIs is then defined, so that it is easy to measure and update. Strict
definition is essential – responsibility, targets, how each KPI is calculated and data source are all needed. For example:
• The owner of the KPI is made clear – they have responsibility for updating the KPI by hand on a daily basis
• The KPI is easy to understand and it is clear whether it is OK or not (e.g. target line, red or green areas of the graph, or red amber green to indicate status).
• Source data is made readily available to simplify day to day update of the KPIs. For each of these Information Centre Meetings:
• order the magnetic white board and stationary necessary for the Information Centre Board
• find a location central to the group of people to attend the meetings in a shared area, not someone’s office
• determine the metrics to be used by working with the participants of the meeting – the meeting owner is key here (e.g. the supervisor for the workgroup, the manager for the contractor, or the senior manager for the owner). What metrics do they need to run their area, firm or site?
• review safety metrics first - safety comes first at an Information Centre Meeting • display the metrics in draft form to get an idea of how they flow and what they look
like. This can be just sketched on a piece of A4 paper with marker pen and fixed to a wall with blue tack.
• remember the 3 second rule, “can you tell OK from NOK in 3 seconds or less?” Each metric must have a clear target and be easy to update by hand.
• create templates from your drafts and assign owners to ensure the metrics are filled in and up to date before the meeting each day
Page | 35 • agree the rules for the meetings, such as:
o everyone attend on time
o 10 minutes stand up at the boards o one conversation
o mobiles on silent
o no problem solving at the meeting
• hold the meetings daily at designated times e.g. pre-start for work groups, 8am for contractors and 10am for site
• review the metrics by exception, that is, only speak about the ones which are NOK. If everything is tracking fine the meeting will be very short but be careful as the targets may also not be stretching enough, or you might not have all relevant KPIs covered. • The Information Centre Meeting metrics will not be right first time, take the
opportunity to review the metrics regularly and to challenge each one to ensure it adds value and to ensure you are covering everything you need to cover.
3.6.2
Pre-requisites for deployment
Information Centre Meetings must be led from the top of the organisation and require discipline and rigor. Meetings should last 10 – 15 minutes and require full attendance on time. KPIs must be updated before the meetings. Participants need to have one
conversation at a time and not problem solve during the meeting. Concerns are allocated to a participant who is asked to solve the issue outside of the meeting by using Go Look See (physically going to the workplace to look at the concerns) and 5 Whys (asking why this happened 5 times). Information Centre Meetings are “no blame” sessions – each concern is an opportunity for improvement which we must work on.
Metrics should be continually challenged to ensure the meetings are adding value and making the delivery. Leaders in the meetings keep the meetings moving forward, challenge any NOK metrics to ensure concerns are raised and recorded and foster a positive environment.
Minimum standards for deployment assume that:
• Daily Information Centre Meetings are held which cover all personnel on site. • KPIs are clear and flow from the owner through the EPCM, the contractor and up to
the tradesperson, so that each individual knows that what they do on a daily basis contributes to the delivery of the project and whether this is meeting the target or not.
• Safety metrics are key at the Information Centre Meetings and are always the first things to be reviewed.
• A high level schedule appropriate to the participants of the Information Centre Meeting should be displayed and reviewed weekly. Daily tasks should also be tracked at lower levels).
A series of workshops should be held with the leaders and participants of each of the Information Centre Meetings to determine the metrics they require on their board. The following supplies will be necessary:
• magnetic whiteboards
• mobile whiteboards with weather proofing • magnets
• hard plastic folders to hold the measures templates • whiteboard markers and rubbers
Page | 36 • printed and laminated headings for Information Centre Boards and metrics
• ticks and crosses to indicate which metrics are OK and NOK • printed templates for the measures
3.6.3
Frequently asked questions
Do we have to update metrics by hand? Yes, for many reasons:
• Many organisations have mountains of data and no information – the data is inaccessible inside computer systems and never really used by individuals. In the Information Centre Meeting we challenge this by asking a person to extract the data, think about it and turn it into information by hand.
• In order to understand the metric in 3 seconds or less it has to be simple, updating by hand forces this simplicity. It is actually harder to make things simple than it is to put up an incomprehensible data dump, but much more useful.
• Holding the pen engages the brain and forces a sense of ownership of the metric that printing out a graph and sticking it up does not.
• Metrics should be updated by their real owners, not the LEAN coach, a secretary or any other, once again holding the pen forces engagement thought and ownership. Do we have to stand up?
Yes, Information Centre Meetings are short meetings (10 – 15 minutes). We are not there to have a coffee and relax, standing up gives the meeting an energy and pace it would not otherwise have.
Can we change the metrics?
Yes, challenging the metrics you are reviewing on a regular basis is healthy. It may be that a particular issue has come up that you want to track specifically, or that the metrics you have are not telling the whole story and you wish to add or replace something. Why can’t we problem solve at the meeting?
In LEAN we believe that problem solving requires the solver to go to the worksite, look at the actual condition and thereby see what the problem really is (Go & See), then to ask why this problem occurred and to continue to ask why until the root cause is discovered (5 Whys). This cannot be done at a meeting.
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3.7
5S and Visual Management
5S and Visual Management are part of the foundation of LEAN, enabling operational stability. They increase productivity, quality and morale by having a safe and efficient site.
In 5S we think of how to best place everything we need on site. At the macro level this includes site layout, access points, laydown area positioning, work fronts and crib rooms. At the micro level it may include positioning of grinding tools in a storage container, colour coding welding equipment or sorting a computer filing system in the office. In Visual Management we think of how to make the area in which we work tell us a story by visual means – are all my tools here, do I have enough consumables, are the parts for tomorrow’s job in the staging area?
These techniques tell us whether we are in control or not, allowing us to manage by exception, by highlighting abnormalities. They are also fundamental to the engagement of all employees, increasing ownership of the work site and morale – very few people want to work in an untidy, disorganised environment.
Five Key Elements of 5S:
• Sort – do we have everything we need, but only those things we need, to accomplish our task within the site, the work area or the office?
• Set – how should we best design our work site or area so that the areas, materials, tools and equipment are in the safest, most efficient and best place. Visual
management is then used to set the workplace so an abnormal condition is easily seen – sign posting, demarcation, shadow boards, labelling, minimum/maximum levels, numbering and colour coding all enable us to tell at a glance that we are set up for success.
• Shine – bringing things to a clean and clear condition and keeping the workplace in good order so that it is ready for use.
• Standardise – agreeing between the team the standard to which the workplace will be kept, photographing this and displaying it so everyone is clear on how the work place should look.
• Sustain – the leadership work necessary to keep the first 4Ss in place, the work of auditing and visible leadership in the work place.
Key Elements of Visual Management:
Visual Management can be a variety of displays and visual markers in the workplace that help you:
• establish and post work priorities
• visually display whether expected daily performance was met - was today a good day or a bad day?
• better understand the flow of inputs and production • quickly identify abnormal conditions
• display standardised methods in use • communicate performance measures
• display elements critical to safe and effective operations
• provide feedback to/from team members, supervisors and managers • eliminate the need for more meetings
Page | 38 See Section 3.6 Information Centre Meetings for more ideas on Visual Management.
3.7.1
Deployment
Each of the following steps should be done by the work team who use the site, area or space, as they are the best judges of how their work area should be organised.
Sort:
1 – Sort:
Eliminate unnecessary items
KEEP DISCARD DECIDE
?
CELL / AREA GORY Material terials 7 8. Reduce Inventory ell / Transferer: DATE RED T AG L OCATOR TAG NUMBER RED TAG
In the sort phase we eliminate any unnecessary items from our work area. If we are undecided about an item, or think someone else may need it, we put a red tag on it indicating what it is, where it was found, by whom and when. This item is then moved to a quarantine area for one month to see if anyone else could use it (a list of red tag items is sent around the site to inform others what is in the quarantine area). After this it is discarded.
Set:
In the set phase we design the overall layout of the site/work area/office to
accommodate in the safest most efficient way the items we still need to work with. In Figure 19 the scaffold yard is clearly laid out and enables the status of scaffolding to be seen at a glance. Similarly, the shadow boards in Figure 20 make it easy to see which tools are on hand and which are missing
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Figure 19 Clearly labelled scaffold yard
